Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Yajiu Zhang, S. Vinodh Kumar, Wanwan Xiang, Zhigang Wu, Zuoyu Sun
Summary: The Cr doping in Ni43Co5Mn44-xCrxSn8 alloys changes the microstructure from single-phase martensite to a refined eutectic dual-phase structure, leading to improved mechanical properties in the eutectic Ni-Co-Mn-Sn alloy.
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING A-STRUCTURAL MATERIALS PROPERTIES MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROCESSING
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Zhen Chen, Daoyong Cong, Yang Ren, Yin Zhang, Haile Yan, Li You, Chao Song, Shaohui Li, Yuxian Cao, Shengwei Li, Changchang Zuo, Li Wang, Zhiyong Gao, Wei Cai, Yandong Wang
Summary: In this study, a high-performance, cost-effective high-temperature shape memory microwire with exceptional superelasticity, one-way and two-way shape memory effects has been developed using the strategy of creating an oligocrystalline structure. This microwire shows great potential for high-temperature actuation, sensing, and energy conversion applications.
NPG ASIA MATERIALS
(2022)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Liang Cheng, Shuaijin Zhang, Guang Yang, Hongchao Kou, Emmanuel Bouzy
Summary: This study achieved microstructure and mechanical properties adjustment of a beta-solidifying TiAl alloy through martensitic transformation, resulting in two different microstructures with distinct mechanical properties, suitable for high temperature service and thermomechanical processing, respectively.
MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
S. Pilz, A. Hariharan, F. Guenther, M. Zimmermann, A. Gebert
Summary: This study reveals the influence of omega iso precipitates on the deformation mechanisms and mechanical properties of a biomedical beta-type Ti-40Nb alloy. The results show that the fraction and size of omega iso increased with increasing aging time, leading to an increase in Young's modulus and proof stress. The active deformation mechanisms also changed with aging time, resulting in significant alterations in mechanical properties.
JOURNAL OF ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Y. Zhou, A. Fillon, D. Laille, T. Gloriant
Summary: Nanoindentation combined with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) was used to investigate the crystallographic anisotropy of indentation responses of individual grains in superelastic Ti2033 alloy. The results showed that the pronounced anisotropy behaviors of indentation modulus, depth, and work recovery ratios were due to the anisotropy in Young's modulus and compressive lattice distortion between the bcc structure of beta phase and the orthorhombic structure of the stress-induced alpha martensite phase. Nevertheless, orientation dependence disappeared when plastic deformations occurred, and the orientation-independency in indentation hardness was attributed to the various slip systems activated within bcc crystals.
JOURNAL OF ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS
(2022)
Article
Physics, Applied
L. Liang, W. Tong, H. J. Wang, L. M. Peng
Summary: Considerable interest has been shown in improving the magnetocaloric properties of NiMnGa ferromagnetic shape memory alloys. In this study, we combined Dy micro-alloying and pseudoelastic cyclic training to enhance the magnetic entropy change and broaden the working temperature interval. The introduction of Dy elements established a stable magneto-structural coupling transformation, resulting in a large magnetic entropy change and widened working temperature interval. The internal strain fields at phase interfaces assisted phase transformation nucleation and significantly reduced hysteresis loss. Pseudoelastic cyclic training produced a preferred crystallographic orientation, facilitating magnetic alignment and achieving a giant magnetic entropy change and effective refrigeration capacity.
APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS
(2023)
Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Ying Wu, Guisheng Zou, Yan Liu, A. Zhanwen, Wenzheng Zhao, Wengan Wang, Junliang Xue, Yongxin Zhang, Qiang Jia, Hui Chen
Summary: A new cobalt-based coating, CoNiTi, was developed and evaluated for brake disc applications at different temperatures. The study found that the plasticity and crack growth resistance of CoCrMoW and CoNiTi deteriorate under high temperature conditions.
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING A-STRUCTURAL MATERIALS PROPERTIES MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROCESSING
(2022)
Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Guangqi Dong, Jinliang Wang, Lingyu Wang, Chenchong Wang, Jun Hu, Wei Xu
Summary: The transition from mechanical destabilization to stabilization in metastable austenite is crucial for the design of structures used at lower temperatures. Through in-situ magnetic measurement and detailed microscopy work, we have uncovered the underlying mechanisms of this transition. Austenite destabilization is caused by an increase in slip band and dislocation densities, which provide additional nucleation sites. The decrease in slip band spacing hinders the growth of martensite and inhibits the formation of multiple martensite variants.
SCRIPTA MATERIALIA
(2023)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Hamed Shahmir, Fatemeh Kiani, Sadjad Baradari, Natalia Resnina, Rashid Bikbaev
Summary: The addition of Zr can suppress the martensitic phase transformation of NiTi alloys, leading to a significant increase in hardness and exhibiting pseudoelasticity.
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY-JMR&T
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Tatsuya Ito, Xiao Xu, Atsushi Miyake, Yuto Kinoshita, Makoto Nagasako, Kohki Takahashi, Toshihiro Omori, Masashi Tokunaga, Ryosuke Kainuma
Summary: In this paper, a new Pd2MnGa Heusler-type MMSMA with an extremely small dissipation energy and hysteresis is reported. The microstructures, crystal structures, magnetic properties, martensitic transformations, and magnetic-field-induced strain of aged Pd2MnGa alloys are investigated. The low values of dissipation energy and hysteresis make the Pd2MnGa alloy a promising candidate for high-efficiency MMSMAs.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Greta Cavazzini, Francesco Cugini, Davide Delmonte, Giovanna Trevisi, Lucia Nasi, Semih Ener, David Koch, Lara Righi, Massimo Solzi, Oliver Gutfleisch, Franca Albertini
Summary: This study presents a top-down method using ball-milling techniques to prepare micro-meter and sub-micro-meter sized particles of Ni50Mn30Ga20 and Ni50Mn18.5Cu6.5Ga25. The research shows that lattice defects and atomic disorder induced during milling have a detrimental effect on magnetic properties and magneto-structural phase transitions, but can be recovered by subsequent annealing. Furthermore, tuning the particle size can improve magnetic properties, such as phase homogeneity, thermal hysteresis reduction, and saturation magnetization increase.
JOURNAL OF ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Guangwei Zhao, Da Li, Guoxiong Xu, Dong Fang, Yongsheng Ye, Caihua Huang, Zengmin Shi
Summary: The proposal of a high entropy shape memory alloy (HESMA) has opened up new possibilities for the application of high-entropy alloys (HEAs) and the development of shape memory alloys (SMAs). However, previous HESMAs have shown relatively modest recoverable strains and complex preparation processes. This work successfully fabricated novel as-cast HESMAs with a very large recoverable strain (9.4%) and excellent mechanical properties, suggesting that designing low C-v values may be a useful strategy for finding HESMAs with good comprehensive properties.
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS ENGINEERING AND PERFORMANCE
(2022)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Hao Li, Kuishan Sun, Xianglong Meng, Wei Cai, Liancheng Zhao
Summary: Recently, the isothermal martensitic transformation in shape memory alloys (SMAs) has been investigated, but the underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood. In this study, the isothermal transition from B2 to B19 was confirmed in Ti-Ni-Cu-Co melt-spun ribbons. A thermally activated kinetic model was developed to characterize the kinetics and it agreed well with the experimental results. It was found that the nucleation density and activation energy played important roles in the isothermal transition.
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Jinpei Guo, Minting Zhong, Wei Zhou, Yajiu Zhang, Zhigang Wu, Yingchao Li, Junsong Zhang, Yinong Liu, Hong Yang
Summary: Isothermal annealing of a eutectic dual phase Ni-Mn-Sn-Fe alloy was conducted to promote grain growth and investigate the impact of gamma phase grain size on martensitic transformation behavior and mechanical properties. The results showed that increasing annealing time led to larger grain size and volume fraction of the gamma phase, primarily through inter-diffusion of Fe and Sn elements between the gamma phase and Heusler matrix. Refinement of the gamma phase grain size improved fracture strength and ductility, as well as superelasticity and stress hysteresis behavior.
Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
T. T. Yao, Y. G. Zhang, L. Yang, Z. Q. Bu, J. F. Li
Summary: This study aims to improve the plasticity of body-centered cubic multi-principal element alloys (MPEAs) by adding different amounts of aluminum to a base alloy. The resultant Ti52Zr34Nb8Al6 alloy exhibits an extraordinary tensile strain of 35%, while maintaining high yield strength and ultimate tensile strength. Microstructural investigations reveal that the exceptional mechanical properties are attributed to stress-induced martensite transformation and subsequent hierarchical deformation twinning.
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING A-STRUCTURAL MATERIALS PROPERTIES MICROSTRUCTURE AND PROCESSING
(2022)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Brijesh Kushwaha, Kush Dwivedi, Rushikesh S. Ambekar, Varinder Pal, Dibya Prakash Jena, Debiprosad Roy Mahapatra, Chandra Sekhar Tiwary
Summary: Hierarchical structures such as the Menger sponge exhibit remarkable mechanical properties with lower effective density, as studied through experiments and simulations. The different cavity shapes in the structure are analyzed for damage initiation under compressive loading, providing insight into the unique properties of hierarchical architecture in regulating mechanical properties. Acoustic investigation indicates that the Menger sponge is a better absorber in the low-frequency regime compared to commercial sponge materials.
ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Composites
Komal Chawla, Benjamin Raju, Dakshayini B. Subbappa, Kishore Babu Kancherla, Debiprosad Roy Mahapatra
Summary: This paper discusses the impact of pore formation mechanism on the elastic properties of composite polymer matrix, proposes a micromechanical model considering different stages of pore formation, and validates the model through experimental measurements on polymer samples.
POLYMER COMPOSITES
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
D. Chakravarty, N. Laxman, R. Jayasree, R. B. Mane, S. Mathiazhagan, P. V. V. Srinivas, R. Das, M. Nagini, M. Eizadjou, L. Venkatesh, N. Ravi, D. R. Mahapatra, R. Vijay, S. P. Ringer, C. S. Tiwary
Summary: The study demonstrates the fabrication of a high-strength, high-dense W-TaC-Ta2O5 nanocomposite on a large scale using plasma sintering, showing superior properties for applications in extreme environments.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REFRACTORY METALS & HARD MATERIALS
(2021)
Article
Engineering, Biomedical
Subhan Shaik, Aarthi Saminathan, Deepak Sharma, Jagdish A. Krishnaswamy, D. Roy Mahapatra
Summary: The rise in industrial effluents, bio-waste, and pharmaceuticals has worsened surface water and drinking water sources. This study successfully monitored microbial cell growth using electrical impedance spectroscopic technique incorporated in a micro-fluidic chip, revealing that reverse osmosis water is more likely to be contaminated with bacterial pathogens.
BIOMEDICAL MICRODEVICES
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Brahmanandam Javvaji, Ramakrishna Vasireddi, Xiaoying Zhuang, Debiprosad Roy Mahapatra, Timon Rabczuk
Summary: This study investigates the mechanism and influencing factors of exfoliating graphene from graphite slabs using laser impulse. The research found that increasing laser energy density can improve the graphene yield, and the dynamics of bridging bonds between successive graphene layers play a key role in the exfoliation process.
MOLECULAR SIMULATION
(2021)
Article
Engineering, Electrical & Electronic
Bidisha Nath, Praveen C. Ramamurthy, Debiprosad Roy Mahapatra, Gopalkrishna Hegde
Summary: Perovskite solar cells have attracted significant attention due to their high efficiency and interesting properties. Defects in the absorber layer have been identified as a major factor impacting the power conversion efficiency. In this study, P-I-N structured devices were passivated using Cuprous iodide, resulting in a reduction of defects in the bandgap and improved device performance.
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE-MATERIALS IN ELECTRONICS
(2022)
Article
Acoustics
G. Kolappan Geetha, Rajendra Kumar Munian, D. Roy Mahapatra, Chi-Won In, D. A. Raulerson
Summary: In this study, new insights are presented into the spatial localization of anharmonic caused by impact-separation contact dynamics in a cavity-like feature. Different nonlinear anharmonics are identified using various models and simulations, revealing that super-harmonics and sub-super harmonics are generated when the target structure resonates precisely and with a slight mistuning, respectively. The response amplitude and energy in the primary excitation frequency are reduced due to energy partitioning, and the ratios of Power Spectral Density (PSD) of anharmonics to that of primary excitation decrease linearly and quadratically with decreasing separation distance and relative amplitude, respectively.
JOURNAL OF SOUND AND VIBRATION
(2022)
Article
Mechanics
N. Gupta, S. R. Hiremath, D. R. Mahapatra
Summary: This study investigates the micro-crack bridging and optimal dispersion mechanism of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in the E-glass fabric reinforced polymer (GFRP) matrix. The results show that under specific processing conditions and with the use of dispersant agents, the addition of a small amount of CNTs can reduce porosity, residual stress, and achieve consistent dispersion strengthening effect, resulting in improved tensile and compressive properties.
MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
(2022)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Bidisha Nath, Simranjeet Singh, Sushant Kumar Behera, Praveen C. Ramamurthy, Debiprosad Roy Mahapatra, Gopalkrishna Hegde
Summary: Interface engineering plays a dominant role in improving charge carrier extraction ability in metal-halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Modifying the interface between the perovskite absorber layer and the electron transfer layer (ETL) using a novel metal-organic framework (MOF) is a promising method to enhance charge transfer ability. By reducing trap states, this ETL modification promotes better growth of perovskite films and leads to a 12% improvement in device efficiency. Different capacitive behaviors are analyzed to understand charge accumulation and transport properties. Density functional simulation findings and the presence of delocalized surface states further support the enhancement of device performance.
Article
Engineering, Aerospace
Divya Shyam Singh, Atul Agrawal, Debiprosad Roy Mahapatra
Summary: This article presents a reduced-order modeling framework for simulating vibration signatures of faults in bladed disks on a rotating shaft. Lumped and one-dimensional analytical models are employed to better understand the complex dynamic response. The framework addresses the challenges in fault detection and identification for health monitoring of aeroengines and other rotating machinery. The proposed framework can be applied in probabilistic signal modeling, machine learning for fault signature identification, and parameter estimation with measured vibration signals.
SAE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AEROSPACE
(2023)
Proceedings Paper
Engineering, Manufacturing
Bidisha Nath, Praveen C. Ramamurthy, D. Roy Mahapatra, Gopalkrishna Hegde
Summary: Organic photodetectors are an emerging topic in organic electronics due to the interesting properties of different organic semiconductors. A flexible light detector based on a PET-based bilayer heterojunction organic photodetector (OPD) involving CuPc and PC60BM has been fabricated. The OPD demonstrated a spectral response in the range of 300 to 800 nm, with the highest EQE of 10.2% observed at 475 nm.
2022 IEEE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FLEXIBLE AND PRINTABLE SENSORS AND SYSTEMS (IEEE FLEPS 2022)
(2022)
Article
Thermodynamics
N. K. Gopinath, K. V. Govindarajan, D. Roy Mahapatra
Summary: This paper presents a study on the three-dimensional transient fluid-thermo-structural behavior of an actively cooled sandwich panel under hypersonic accelerating-cruise flight conditions. The results show that active cooling can effectively control thermo-structural deformation and improve combustion efficiency.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
(2022)
Article
Engineering, Electrical & Electronic
Bidisha Nath, Praveen C. Ramamurthy, Debiprosad Roy Mahapatra, Gopalkrishna Hegde
Summary: By using metal nanopowder for thermally evaporated top electrodes in perovskite solar cells, this study found a significant improvement in device performance, including lower series resistance and higher shunt resistance, leading to enhancements in open-circuit voltage and power conversion efficiency. Metal nanopowder can reduce recombination processes, thus improving device performance.
ACS APPLIED ELECTRONIC MATERIALS
(2022)
Proceedings Paper
Energy & Fuels
Bidisha Nath, Praveen C. Ramamurthy, D. Roy Mahapatra, Gopalkrishna Hegde
Summary: Thermal evaporation was used to fabricate PIN structure perovskite solar cells with electrodes deposited from bulk and nano-powder silver, resulting in top electrodes with lower surface roughness. Devices with electrodes from nano-powder showed improved device performance, as observed from J-V characteristics.
2021 IEEE 48TH PHOTOVOLTAIC SPECIALISTS CONFERENCE (PVSC)
(2021)
Proceedings Paper
Energy & Fuels
Varun Adiga, Bidisha Nath, Praveen C. Ramamurthy, D. Roy Mahapatra, Gopalkrishna Hegde
Summary: The study demonstrates an ambient hermetic encapsulation process to prevent moisture penetration into metal halide perovskite solar cells, which significantly improves their stability and durability. The encapsulated devices showed no change after being immersed in water for 48 hours, while the unencapsulated ones changed color within 2 minutes, indicating the effectiveness of the encapsulation process for enhancing the lifetime of the solar cells.
2021 IEEE 48TH PHOTOVOLTAIC SPECIALISTS CONFERENCE (PVSC)
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Deyong Zheng, Huihui Jin, Yucong Liao, Pengxia Ji
Summary: In this study, a highly stable and efficient catalyst, fluorine-doped Co3O4 (F-Co3O4), was developed for hydrogen production by water electrolysis. The F-Co3O4 catalyst exhibited a remarkable reduction in overpotential and demonstrated excellent stability for over 100 hours.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Ziwen Lv, Jintao Wang, Fengyi Wang, Jianqiang Wang, Fuquan Li, Hongtao Chen
Summary: Adding Cu6Sn5 nano particles can effectively inhibit the overgrowth of intermetallic compounds at the interfaces of solder joints in electronic devices, providing a solution to this issue. A new growth mechanism of intermetallic compounds at the interfaces was identified.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Jun Wang, Jiawei Chen, Wanru Liao, Fangyang Liu, Min Liu, Liangxing Jiang
Summary: A BiOI/AgI/Ag plasmonic heterostructure photocathode was successfully designed through electrodeposition, ion-exchange, and illumination methods. This photocathode exhibits superior performance in photoelectrochemical water splitting.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Xiaoxiao Liu, Xianxian Zhou, Xiaotao Ma, Qinbo Yuan, Shibin Liu
Summary: In this study, the authors propose a method to accelerate the reaction of polysulfides in lithium-sulfur batteries using a Ni@OC Mott-Schottky heterojunction as a catalyst. The experimental results demonstrate that the charge redistribution at the Ni@OC interface accelerates electron transfer and enhances catalytic activity, leading to improved reaction kinetics and battery performance.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Dayou Ma, Mohammad Rezasefat, Joziel Aparecido da Cruz, Sandro Campos Amico, Marco Giglio, Andrea Manes
Summary: The matrix has a significant effect on the impact resistance of composite materials. Replacing a brittle polymer with a more flexible one can improve impact resistance, but it poses challenges to standard testing methods. This study designs a new fixture for testing the low-velocity impact of soft composites and investigates the effect of the fixture on the mechanical performance.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Lingchang Wang, Qihang Yang, Huzhen Li, Ming Wei, Qian Wang, Zhenzhong Hu, Mengmeng Zhen
Summary: Bronze titanium dioxide (TiO2(B)) is a promising anode material for lithium-ion batteries due to its high specific capacity. However, its practical applications are hindered by poor conductivity and limited electrochemical kinetics. In this study, TiO2(B)-carbon nanosheets heterostructures are synthesized to enhance the cycling performance and rate capability of TiO2(B).
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Atul Thakur, Ritesh Verma, Ankush Chauhan, Fayu Wan, Preeti Thakur
Summary: In this study, BaFe12O19 and BaFe12O19: Epoxy (50:50) nanocomposites were synthesized using the co-precipitation method. The structural information and material properties, such as crystallite size and electrical conductivity, were characterized by XRD, FESEM, EDX, and TEM techniques.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Jingyu Wu, Xinyan Ma, Yong Yang
Summary: A well-defined CoS2@NC(CS-500) hierarchical binder-free catalyst cathode is constructed through in-situ grown of ZIF-67 on carbon cloth and high-temperature carbonization. The cathode shows excellent reaction kinetics and electrochemical performance, providing inspiration for developing advanced Li-CO2 battery catalysts.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Svetlana M. Posokhova, Vladimir A. Morozov, Kirill N. Boldyrev, Dina Deyneko, Erzhena T. Pavlova, Bogdan I. Lazoryak
Summary: This study explores the impact of synthesis method and composition on the structure and luminescence properties of K5Eu1-xHox(MoO4)4 with the palmierite-type matrix. The co-doping of Eu3+ and Ho3+ ions plays a critical role in manipulating charge transfer and luminescence efficiency in the visible and infrared regions.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Jian Wang, Yeting Tao, Jingsheng Wang, Youtian Tao
Summary: A new electron-transport material iTPyBI-CN is developed through non-catalytic C-N coupling reaction. It exhibits better electroluminescence efficiency in organic light-emitting diodes compared to the commercial material TPBI, due to its twisted geometry and higher energy levels.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Tao Zhu, Feng Huang, Shuo Li, Yang Zhou
Summary: This article combines XRD analysis and microscopic structural observation to investigate the changes in limestone after high-temperature treatment. It finds that 500 degrees C is the critical temperature for crystalline and spatial arrangement changes in limestone, and the thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, and heat storage coefficient gradually decrease after thermal treatment.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Muhammad Haekal Habibie, Fransiska Sri Herwahyu Krismastuti, Abdi Wira Septama, Faiza Maryani, Vivi Fauzia
Summary: This study focuses on the synthesis of zinc oxide nanostructure from zinc recovered from galvanization ash and highlights its potential as a sustainable source of zinc and as an antibacterial agent.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Jingyi Li, Yixin Xing, Wei Gu, Shousi Lu
Summary: In this study, PC@CaP microparticles were fabricated using biomimetic mineralization. The results showed that under environmental stress, PC@CaP exhibited improved stability and antioxidative activity, indicating its potential use in high-added value fields.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Yan Liu, Shunyou Chen
Summary: In this study, TNTs were used as a drug carrier and modified with ZIF-8 and silk fibroin to obtain a new drug loading platform. The results showed that this drug-loaded platform had a good drug release effect in vitro and could promote cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Chunhui Zhu, Wentao Wang, Qing Zhen, Xinning Huang, Shixin Li, Shaochang Wang, Xiaoping Ma, Xiaoxia Liu, Yalong Jiao, Kai Sun, Zhuangzhi Li, Huaixin Yang, Jianqi Li
Summary: A type of stacking fault is revealed in e-InSe crystal, which is associated with a small stacking-fault energy and shows exceptional plasticity.
