Article
Engineering, Civil
Fedor S. Belyaev, Margarita E. Evard, Aleksandr E. Volkov
Summary: A model of plastic deformation in shape memory alloys is developed, focusing on dislocation slip at the microlevel and the interaction with martensitic transformations. The model accurately describes the effect of plastic strain on the shape memory effect, and can also capture the two-way shape memory effect. The proposed model considers deformation defects densities for a more comprehensive understanding.
SMART STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
(2022)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Xiqing Ge, Shan Liu, Guangchun Wang
Summary: This study investigates the effect of transient and high-energy pulse current on the phase transformation behavior of NiTi shape memory alloy. The results show that THEPC increases the start temperature of martensitic transformation and changes the transformation sequence.
MATERIALS TODAY COMMUNICATIONS
(2022)
Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Asaf Dana, Emil Bronstein, Eilon Faran, Veijo Honkimaki, Klaus-Dieter Liss, Doron Shilo
Summary: The martensitic transformation in shape memory alloys is known to be very fast. However, its rate in bulk materials that serve in common actuator applications is still an open question. In this study, the researchers induced the martensitic transformation in a polycrystalline NiTi shape memory alloy wire using a high-voltage microsecond superheating pulse, and tracked its rate using time-resolved X-ray diffraction. They found that the transformation rate follows the rate of heating, completing most of the process within approximately 1 µs, but a part of the transformation continues at much slower time scales of several tens of microseconds.
SCRIPTA MATERIALIA
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yan Feng, Bochao Liu, Xueman Wan, Qianwen Liu, Xin Lin, Pan Wang
Summary: NiTi alloys with superelasticity and shape memory effects were prepared using laser solid forming technology. The microstructure, phase transformation, and shape recovery of the deposited alloy were affected by the deposition parameters. The alloy exhibited excellent compression superelastic recovery and shape memory effect, with variations depending on the deposition parameters.
JOURNAL OF ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yanqing Zhang, Xianjie Zhang, Shuiyuan Yang, Shaobin Pan, Jinming Wang, Yong Lu, Jiajia Han, Xingjun Liu, Cuiping Wang
Summary: The phase equilibria of the Co-V-Ga ternary system at 1000 degrees C and the composition dependence of martensitic transformation characteristics in Co2VGa Heusler alloys were investigated. The study identified different phases and compounds in the system, determined critical compositions, and designed a shape memory alloy with significant shape recovery. The results provide valuable information for composition designation and estimation of martensitic transformation temperatures in Co-V-Ga Heusler shape memory alloys.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Alexander Shelyakov, Nikolay Sitnikov, Irina Zaletova, Kirill Borodako, Natalia Tabachkova
Summary: Alloys of the TiNi-TiCu system have potential for use in micromechanical devices. High copper content amorphous alloys with excellent shape-memory effect can be produced using the melt quenching method. The properties of these alloys depend on crystallization conditions and the structure of the initial amorphous material.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Jiaming Zhu, Hong-Hui Wu, Yuan Wu, Haoliang Wang, Tianlong Zhang, Hu Xiao, Yunzhi Wang, San-Qiang Shi
Summary: This study investigated the influence of Ni4Ti3 precipitation on martensitic transformations in NiTi shape memory alloys through computer simulations. The results showed that Ni concentration gradient and internal coherency stress fields play crucial roles in the structure and development of martensitic domains.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
N. Resnina, I. A. Palani, S. Belyaev, S. S. Mani Prabu, P. Liulchak, U. Karaseva, M. Manikandan, S. Jayachandran, V Bryukhanova, Anshu Sahu, R. Bikbaev
Summary: The study utilized GMAW and WAAM processes to deposit NiTi alloy on a Titanium substrate, evaluating the heterogeneity in terms of microstructure and composition across different layers, and analyzing its influence on martensitic transformation temperatures.
JOURNAL OF ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS
(2021)
Article
Physics, Applied
Yijia Zhang, Dexin Zhao, Juan C. C. Lago, Kelvin Xie, Patrick J. J. Shamberger
Summary: During martensitic phase transformations in thin films, the presence of additional substrate interface can inhibit the motion of martensite/austenite interface, resulting in hysteresis. To reduce this hysteresis, we studied Ni-Mn-Sn films with thicknesses ranging from 2.9 to 14.5 μm. Delaminating the films before annealing decreases hysteresis, while delaminating them after annealing has no significant effect on hysteresis. Substrate effects are caused by the mismatch in thermal expansion between the film and substrate, leading to the formation of dislocations at the interface and increased frictional resistance to martensite/austenite interface motion.
APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Shan Liu, Jie Zhu, Yao Lin, Guangchun Wang, Xiebin Wang
Summary: This study investigates the use of stretching-bending deformation (SBD) and aging treatments to improve the functional stability of NiTi alloys. The results show that repeated SBD treatment refines the grain size and introduces dislocations, leading to enhanced functional stability. Aging at specific conditions further improves the properties of the alloy due to the introduction of nanoscaled Ni4Ti3 precipitates.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
E. Alarcon, L. Heller, E. de Prado, J. Kopecek
Summary: This work analyzed the effects of temperature and microstructure on the tensile behavior of superelastic NiTi wires. Cold-drawn NiTi wires with different final heat treatments were subjected to temperature gradients, and the deformation processes and microstructure changes were characterized. The results showed that the stress of localized martensitic transformation stabilized with increasing temperature, while the volume fraction of martensite decreased. Ductility exhibited a non-monotonic evolution with temperature, with higher ductility observed in samples with more microstructure recovery or recrystallization.
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Chun-Hsiang Tu, Shyi-Kaan Wu, Chieh Lin, Bo-Yang Huang
Summary: The effects of intermediate temperature aging on two-stage R-phase transformation behavior in TiNiFe-based SMAs were investigated in this study. Ti48.5Ni49.5Fe2 exhibited a two-stage R-phase transformation induced by Ti3Ni4 precipitates, while Ti49.5Ni48.5Fe2 showed a two-stage transformation of B2-R2-B19? during aging. The behavior observed in these SMAs is a compromise between Ti3Ni4 precipitation and changes in Ni and Fe content in the matrix during aging.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Sarah M. Kamel, Lajos Daroczi, Laszlo Z. Toth, Elena Panchenko, Yuriy I. Chumljakov, Nora M. Samy, Dezso L. Beke
Summary: Simultaneous acoustic emission, AE, and DSC measurements were conducted on Ni49Fe18Ga27Co6 shape memory single crystals during compression along [110]A direction. The compression resulted in anomalous stress-strain loops with stress drops/jumps reflecting the sudden formation/dissolution of a more stable martensite structural modification. The final detwinned martensite showed burst-like recovery at a higher transformation temperature than the thermally induced one, accompanied by audible clicks.
Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
W. Cho, D. Salas, N. Barta, I. Karaman
Summary: The effects of heat treatments on the transformation characteristics of micron-sized Ni(45)Co(5)Mn(36.7)In(13.3) particles were studied, showing that martensitic transformation temperatures are proportional to the annealing temperature below the order-disorder transition and inversely proportional above it, with an opposite trend observed for the transformation hysteresis. A significantly larger hysteresis was found in the particles, correlated with crystallite size dependent phenomena, increasing the effective energy barrier to the phase-transition.
SCRIPTA MATERIALIA
(2022)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Jun Li, Xiaoyang Yi, Haizhen Wang, Kuishan Sun, Jingjing Liu, Xianglong Meng, Zhiyong Gao
Summary: The study shows that hot-rolling can refine grain size and affect martensitic transformation; solution treated Ti-Ta-Hf alloy exhibits higher yield stress and superior strain recovery characteristics.
PROGRESS IN NATURAL SCIENCE-MATERIALS INTERNATIONAL
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Carlo Alberto Biffi, Paola Bassani, Jacopo Fiocchi, Donatella Giuranno, Rada Novakovic, Ausonio Tuissi, Enrica Ricci
Summary: Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is a layer by layer method widely used for manufacturing 3D components, providing finer microstructure and suitable for studying high temperature behavior of alloys like AlSiMg system.
MATERIALS CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
(2021)
Review
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
J. Fiocchi, A. Tuissi, C. A. Biffi
Summary: Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is a widely used additive manufacturing technique for producing aluminium alloys, which has attracted attention due to its low density. The peculiar solidification conditions and layer-by-layer construction during the SLM process result in various microstructural features, requiring special post-build heat treatments to adapt to the unique metallurgy and address specific issues.
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Carlo Alberto Biffi, Ausonio Tuissi, Ali Gokhan Demir
Summary: Micro laser metal wire deposition (mLMWD) was used to manufacture thin walls with heights of up to 40 mm using superelastic Nitinol wires, demonstrating high density, crack-free structures suitable for high aspect ratio and sub-millimeter thickness applications.
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY-JMR&T
(2021)
Article
Engineering, Aerospace
Diego Scaccabarozzi, Carlo Alberto Biffi, Bortolino Saggin, Marianna Magni, Pietro Valnegri, Jacopo Fiocchi, Ausonio Tuissi
Summary: Space is at the forefront of additive manufacturing technology, allowing the creation of complex and lightweight 3D structures. In a study, a pumping system holder for the MicroMED instrument developed for the ExoMars 2022 mission was designed using this technology and optimized with a finite element approach. The effectiveness of the design was evaluated by comparing two different designs using a specific alloy, with one based on micro-milling and the other on Selective Laser Melting. A mockup was produced and tested successfully in the mission's mechanical environment to validate the Selective Laser Melting design.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Jacopo Fiocchi, Chiara Bregoli, Giulio Gerosa, Ausonio Tuissi, Carlo Alberto Biffi
Summary: This study explores the production of AlSi10Mg lattice structures using additive manufacturing and demonstrates how heat treatments can be used to selectively induce different microstructural modifications, thereby finely tuning the mechanical behavior. It was found that removal of residual stresses improves the compressive behavior, while increasing ductility is crucial for enhancing dynamic damping ability.
ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS
(2021)
Article
Engineering, Mechanical
Danilo A. Renzo, Emanuele Sgambitterra, Carmine Maletta, Franco Furgiuele, Carlo A. Biffi, Jacopo Fiocchi, Ausonio Tuissi
Summary: This study investigated the multiaxial fatigue behavior of Ti6Al4V samples produced by the selective laser melting (SLM) process. Fatigue tests were conducted under three different loading conditions, and a modified damage model based on the Sines criterion was proposed for analyzing the data. Preliminary results showed that the proposed model had better predictive capabilities compared to the Sines model. Infrared thermography and digital image correlation techniques were used to analyze temperature and strain evolutions during fatigue tests, revealing different failure modes related to surface and internal crack initiation.
FATIGUE & FRACTURE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS & STRUCTURES
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Mohammadreza Nematollahi, Sayed Ehsan Saghaian, Keyvan Safaei, Parisa Bayati, Paola Bassani, Carlo Biffi, Ausonio Tuissi, Haluk Karaca, Mohammad Elahinia
Summary: This study investigates the microstructure and shape memory properties of laser powder bed fusion NiTi parts fabricated in different building orientations. The research reveals that different orientations lead to anisotropic compression-tension behaviors, with texture variations impacting the mechanical performance of the samples.
JOURNAL OF ALLOYS AND COMPOUNDS
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
S. Battiston, F. Montagner, V. Zin, S. Barison, A. Fiorese, A. Gionda, M. Rancan, F. Sordello, M. Minella, C. A. Biffi, J. Fiocchi, A. Tuissi, L. Armelao
Summary: In this study, surface engineering of Ti6Al4V produced via selective laser melting was carried out to investigate the improvement of coupling with AlTiN coatings. Vacuum thermal treatments induced peculiar mesoscale morphology and surface chemical modifications of the Ti6Al4V, contributing to enhance the adhesion of the deposited AlTiN thin films. Characterization techniques including FESEM, AFM, XPS, XRD, nanoindentation, and scratch tests were used to analyze the substrates and coatings.
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS ENGINEERING AND PERFORMANCE
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Jacopo Fiocchi, Chiara Colombo, Laura Maria Vergani, Alberto Fabrizi, Giulio Timelli, Ausonio Tuissi, Carlo Alberto Biffi
Summary: This study explores the effect of stress relieving heat treatment on the microstructure, tensile properties, and residual stresses of laser powder bed fused AlSi9Cu3 alloy. Low temperature heat treatments are found to be desirable for promoting stress relaxation and limiting grain growth to achieve the best compromise between high strength, good elongation to failure, and limited residual stresses. Furthermore, a 59% reduction in principal residual stresses can be achieved after a 25-hour treatment, indicating a correlation with mechanical behavior.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Carlo Alberto Biffi, Jacopo Fiocchi, Mauro Coduri, Ausonio Tuissi
Summary: The study found that increasing Al content reduces the amount of CuZr phase transformation and promotes the formation of secondary phases. Higher Al content leads to lower MT temperatures and enthalpies, with implications for mechanical properties.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Carlo Alberto Biffi, Paola Bassani, Jacopo Fiocchi, Mihaela Albu, Ausonio Tuissi
Summary: This study investigated the processability of an advanced aluminum alloy, AlCu-TiB2, using selective laser melting (SLM) and analyzed the correlation between microstructure and mechanical properties of the specimens. It was found that adjusting the laser power and exposure time can achieve high relative density and uniform microstructure, resulting in expected mechanical properties.
MATERIALS & DESIGN
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
S. Gambaro, C. Paternoster, B. Occhionero, J. Fiocchi, C. A. Biffi, A. Tuissi, D. Mantovani
Summary: Three new Fe-Mn-C alloys were investigated for their potential as bioresorbable implants, with varying Mn and C contents affecting phase formation, mechanical properties, corrosion rates, and degradation patterns. The alloys with higher Mn content showed a mix of martensitic and austenitic phases while those with lower Mn and higher C content exhibited only the austenitic phase. Despite differences in mechanical resistance, the chemical composition of the degradation products was similar across all three alloy compositions. The formation of a (Fe,Mn)CO3 cuboid layer post-degradation acted as a corrosion barrier, influencing the corrosion rates of the samples.
MATERIALS TODAY COMMUNICATIONS
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
J. Fiocchi, J. N. Lemke, S. Zilio, C. A. Biffi, A. Coda, A. Tuissi
Summary: The Fe-Mn system is suitable for developing biodegradable metals, with the addition of Si improving mechanical properties while maintaining corrosion susceptibility and biocompatibility. Heat treatment and alloying of the Fe-30 Mn-5Si alloy can improve its performance, particularly by optimizing microstructural homogeneity through the addition of Si.
MATERIALS TODAY COMMUNICATIONS
(2021)
Article
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Lorenzo Beretta, Silvia Bonfanti, Jacopo Fiocchi, Francesc Font-Clos, Roberto Guerra, Ausonio Tuissi, Stefano Zapperi
Summary: Automatic design of mechanical metamaterials can achieve higher efficiency than human-designed solutions, leading to a multitude of possible functional solutions.
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Jacopo Fiocchi, Riccardo Casati, Ausonio Tuissi, Carlo Alberto Biffi
Summary: This study explores the feasibility of joining the CoCuFeMnNi high entropy alloy using laser beam welding. The mechanical strength of the welded joints was improved through the formation of Cu-rich phases and solidification stresses. The results confirm that laser welding can be safely applied to high entropy alloys.
ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
M. H. Abbasi, R. Tavakoli, S. G. Shabestari
Summary: The correlation between atomic-scale structure and glass-forming ability of ternary bulk metallic glasses was investigated using molecular dynamics simulation. It was found that the potential energy of the icosahedra reflects the geometric ordering, while the virial stress energy density reveals the chemical ordering. Based on this discovery, a new prediction criterion for glass-forming ability was proposed and validated using experimental data.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Haimin Zhai, Shuai Cui, Sheng Li, Dongqing He, Bo Cheng, Xinjian Zhang, Wensheng Li, Zhornik Viktor, Uladzimir Seniuts
Summary: Laser shock peening (LSP) treatment significantly affects the phase structure and properties of titanium-based BMG materials, promoting rejuvenation and introducing heterogeneity. This leads to improved plasticity and resistance to crack propagation. LSP-1 specimen exhibits higher hardness and plasticity, reducing fatigue peeling wear caused by brittleness. However, excessive LSP results in increased susceptibility to pitting and significantly reduces tribocorrosion resistance.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Olga A. Blatova, Maria A. Solodovnikova, Ekaterina M. Egorova, Vladislav A. Blatov
Summary: This study applied a universal geometrical-topological approach to analyze the crystal structures of intermetallic compounds deposited in the Inorganic Crystal Structure Database. By exploring the local atomic configurations, they identified different types of coordination polyhedra and proposed criteria for determining geometric instability. This research provides useful indicators for checking crystallographic information and validating structural models.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Jose M. Torralba, Diego Iriarte, Damien Tourret, Alberto Meza
Summary: The amount of globally recycled e-waste is less than 20% of the total produced. One of the causes for this low recycling rate is the complex and expensive selective sorting of metals. However, recent research has shown that high entropy alloys (HEAs) can be made from complex alloy mixtures, reducing the dependence on pure critical metals. It has been demonstrated that e-waste can be used to produce competitive HEAs.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
M. Y. He, Y. F. Shen, N. Jia, W. Y. Xue, J. P. Li
Summary: This study successfully improved the mechanical properties of high-entropy alloys (HEAs) through phase decomposition modulation, achieving strengthening of low-cost CuFeMnNi HEAs. The annealed HEAs exhibited excellent mechanical properties, with significantly increased yield strength and maintained satisfactory elongation.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
D. V. Louzguine-Luzgin, F. R. Pratama
Summary: In this study, the growth rate of a crystalline phase in the Al-Fe-Mn-Si metallic glass was measured in real time using transmission electron microscopy. The effective diffusion coefficient related to the slowest diffusing element (Mn) was estimated. The results showed that the growth rate of the crystalline phase was significantly faster compared to pure Al and AlFe compound.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Zhenhua Han, Yubo Tian, Jun Yang, Jianzhao Li, Jinyang Zhang, Gang Liu, Ran Wei, Guojun Zhang
Summary: In this study, a novel medium-entropy alloy (MEA) (Fe65Ni15Cr10Co10)92Ti5Al3 with a dual heterogeneous structure was developed by adding Ti and Al to a previously reported Fe65Ni15Co10Cr10 MEA. The MEA exhibited ultra-high ultimate tensile strength and work hardening extent at room temperature. The addition of Ti and Al induced precipitation and resulted in a continuous FCC -> BCC martensitic transformation and a transformation-induced plasticity effect. The excellent mechanical properties of the alloy were attributed to the synergistic effects of hetero-deformation induced strengthening, precipitation strengthening, and TRIP.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
S. Y. Liang, L. T. Zhang, B. Wang, Y. J. Wang, E. Pineda, J. C. Qiao
Summary: This study focuses on the influence of the thermomechanical protocol on the aging or rejuvenation of glass by decoupling the thermal and mechanical processes. The results show that Labased metallic glass exhibits material hypomnesia, with a clearer rejuvenation trend observed after imposing increasing amplitude strain oscillations. There is a threshold value of the oscillation amplitude that separates the effects of the protocol into acceleration of aging or rejuvenation. This study reveals the correlation between the thermomechanical properties of metallic glass and the previous application of strain oscillations of various amplitudes, providing an effective tool for regulating the structural state of metallic glasses through a simple-operated method.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Chihui Liu, Hua Zhang, Qing Wang, Panzhi Wang, Jiadian Yang, Fanchao Meng, Xin Zhou, Lilong Zhu, Shangzhou Zhang, Liang Jiang
Summary: Thermal deformation behavior and microstructure evolution of GH141 alloy were efficiently studied using high-throughput double-cone gradient compression. Different compression temperatures resulted in a wide gradient equivalent strain distribution and gradient microstructure. The dynamic recrystallization mechanism shifted towards discontinuous dynamic recrystallization with increasing compression temperature.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
D. Dubaux, J. Zollinger, M. -C. de Weerd, J. Ghanbaja, S. Mathieu, S. Migot, P. Boulet, S. Sturm, V. Fournee, M. Sicot, J. Ledieu
Summary: We report the formation of large and highly twinned dendrites of the Al13Fe4 approximant phase embedded in an fcc Al-rich matrix. Using a rapid cooling technique, the approximant appears as a 10-fold dendrite. The grain distributions within the arm are complex and a single dendrite arm can contain up to four different orientations. Three types of twins, namely {100}, {001} and {201} twins, have been identified. A growth mechanism involving heteroepitaxial growth from a decagonal Al-Fe quasicrystalline seed is proposed to explain the formation of these specific 10-fold motifs.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Ming Yang, Yibo Zhang, Jie Dong, Yan Huang, Zhichao Lu, Liang Wang, Xuerui Wei, Zhengdong Fu, Jinkui Zhao, Wenli Song, Wei Li, Yuntao Liu, Dong Ma
Summary: A multi-element microalloying strategy has been used to improve the microstructure and mechanical properties of CuZr-based bulk metallic glass composites. Microalloying effectively refines the CuZr phase and results in finely dispersed B2 crystallites embedded in the BMG matrix, leading to the formation of centimeter-sized BMGCs with good mechanical properties.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Xuejie Zhu, Xuexi Zhang, Mingfang Qian, Ziyi Wang, Aibin Li, Zongning Chen, Muhammad Imran, Lin Geng
Summary: The homogeneous superelastic behavior in shape memory alloys (SMAs) is crucial for their functional and structural fatigue properties, as well as their stable elastocaloric effect (eCE). In this study, a Ti-22Nb-4Zr-2Ta plate was prepared with a strong recrystallized texture, resulting in a completely recoverable superelastic strain and narrow hysteresis. The observation of strain and temperature evolution revealed the importance of diffuse transformation and favorable texture in achieving mesoscopically homogeneous transformation and related elastocaloric effect.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Mohammad Navazani, Sitarama Raju Kada, Daniel Fabijanic, Matthew Barnett
Summary: This study investigates the effect of Cu and Al addition on an alloy containing multiple principal elements. The results show that adding small amounts of Cu can improve the alloy's ductility and the hardness of the FCC phase can be predicted using a hybrid model. Unlike previous studies, the corrosion resistance of the alloy is not affected by Cu addition, indicating its potential for further development into a fine-grained stainless steel alloy.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Fatemeh Azizian, Homam Naffakh-Moosavy, Fatemeh Bagheri
Summary: Novel biodegradable Zn-xCu-0.8Mn-0.4Ag alloys were prepared in this study, and the effects of Cu addition and hot extrusion process on microstructure, mechanical properties, and cytotoxicity of the alloys were investigated. The results showed that adding copper and performing a hot extrusion process can significantly improve the mechanical properties of the alloys, making them potential candidates for cardiovascular stents.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Ivan A. Ditenberg, Denis A. Osipov, Ivan Smirnov, Konstantin V. Grinyaev
Summary: This study investigates the effect of high-temperature annealing on the structural-phase state and microhardness of Ni3Al samples obtained by spark plasma sintering after high-energy ball milling. The results show that certain annealing temperatures promote grain growth and high-density nucleation, leading to the formation of a fine-grained structural state. The study also analyzes the influence of annealing temperature on the strengthening mechanisms.
