Flexible solid-state supercapacitors: design, fabrication and applications

Solid-State Supercapacitor Based on Activated Carbon Cloths Exhibits Excellent Rate Capability

(2014) Gongming Wang et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Oxygen-Deficient Hematite Nanorods as High-Performance and Novel Negative Electrodes for Flexible Asymmetric Supercapacitors

(2014) Xihong Lu et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Graphene-Patched CNT/MnO2 Nanocomposite Papers for the Electrode of High-Performance Flexible Asymmetric Supercapacitors

(2013) Yu Jin et al.   ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces

Hydrogenated ZnO Core–Shell Nanocables for Flexible Supercapacitors and Self-Powered Systems

(2013) Peihua Yang et al.   ACS Nano

Flexible Asymmetric Supercapacitors Based upon Co9S8 Nanorod//Co3O4@RuO2 Nanosheet Arrays on Carbon Cloth

(2013) Jing Xu et al.   ACS Nano

Flexible Solid-State Supercapacitors Based on Three-Dimensional Graphene Hydrogel Films

(2013) Yuxi Xu et al.   ACS Nano

A High-Performance Graphene Oxide-Doped Ion Gel as Gel Polymer Electrolyte for All-Solid-State Supercapacitor Applications

(2013) Xi Yang et al.   ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS

Freestanding Mesoporous VN/CNT Hybrid Electrodes for Flexible All-Solid-State Supercapacitors

(2013) Xu Xiao et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

All-Graphene Core-Sheath Microfibers for All-Solid-State, Stretchable Fibriform Supercapacitors and Wearable Electronic Textiles

(2013) Yuning Meng et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Large Areal Mass, Flexible and Free-Standing Reduced Graphene Oxide/Manganese Dioxide Paper for Asymmetric Supercapacitor Device

(2013) Afriyanti Sumboja et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Flexible and high surface area composites of carbon fiber, polypyrrole, and poly(DMcT) for supercapacitor electrodes

(2013) Rogério A. Davoglio et al.   ELECTROCHIMICA ACTA

Flexible graphene–polyaniline composite paper for high-performance supercapacitor

(2013) Huai-Ping Cong et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

Knitted and screen printed carbon-fiber supercapacitors for applications in wearable electronics

(2013) Kristy Jost et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

Manganese dioxide nanorod arrays on carbon fabric for flexible solid-state supercapacitors

(2013) Minghao Yu et al.   JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES

High Energy Density Asymmetric Quasi-Solid-State Supercapacitor Based on Porous Vanadium Nitride Nanowire Anode

(2013) Xihong Lu et al.   NANO LETTERS

Textile electrodes woven by carbon nanotube–graphene hybrid fibers for flexible electrochemical capacitors

(2013) Huhu Cheng et al.   Nanoscale

A review of fabrication and applications of carbon nanotube film-based flexible electronics

(2013) Steve Park et al.   Nanoscale

High energy density asymmetric supercapacitors with a nickel oxide nanoflake cathode and a 3D reduced graphene oxide anode

(2013) Feng Luan et al.   Nanoscale

Exploring electrolyte organization in supercapacitor electrodes with solid-state NMR

(2013) Michaël Deschamps et al.   NATURE MATERIALS

Flexible supercapacitors

(2013) Shan Shi et al.   Particuology

Liquid-Mediated Dense Integration of Graphene Materials for Compact Capacitive Energy Storage

(2013) X. Yang et al.   SCIENCE

Flexible supercapacitor based on MnO2 nanoparticles via electrospinning

(2013) Xinhua Li et al.   Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Hierarchical NiCo2O4@NiO core–shell hetero-structured nanowire arrays on carbon cloth for a high-performance flexible all-solid-state electrochemical capacitor

(2013) Wanlu Yang et al.   Journal of Materials Chemistry A

High performance flexible solid-state asymmetric supercapacitors from MnO2/ZnO core–shell nanorods//specially reduced graphene oxide

(2013) Wang Zilong et al.   Journal of Materials Chemistry C

Highly porous graphene on carbon cloth as advanced electrodes for flexible all-solid-state supercapacitors

(2013) Shuangyin Wang et al.   Nano Energy

Volumetric capacitance of compressed activated microwave-expanded graphite oxide (a-MEGO) electrodes

(2013) Shanthi Murali et al.   Nano Energy

Carbon Nanomaterials for Flexible Energy Storage

(2013) Yingwen Cheng et al.   Materials Research Letters

New Generation “Nanohybrid Supercapacitor”

(2012) Katsuhiko Naoi et al.   ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH

Capacitive Energy Storage in Nanostructured Carbon–Electrolyte Systems

(2012) P. Simon et al.   ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH

Flexible All-Solid-State Asymmetric Supercapacitors Based on Free-Standing Carbon Nanotube/Graphene and Mn3O4 Nanoparticle/Graphene Paper Electrodes

(2012) Hongcai Gao et al.   ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces

LiCl/PVA Gel Electrolyte Stabilizes Vanadium Oxide Nanowire Electrodes for Pseudocapacitors

(2012) Gongming Wang et al.   ACS Nano

Fiber-Based All-Solid-State Flexible Supercapacitors for Self-Powered Systems

(2012) Xu Xiao et al.   ACS Nano

All-Solid-State Flexible Supercapacitors Fabricated with Bacterial Nanocellulose Papers, Carbon Nanotubes, and Triblock-Copolymer Ion Gels

(2012) Yu Jin Kang et al.   ACS Nano

Freestanding Three-Dimensional Graphene/MnO2 Composite Networks As Ultralight and Flexible Supercapacitor Electrodes

(2012) Yongmin He et al.   ACS Nano

Gel Electrolyte Derived from Poly(ethylene glycol) Blending Poly(acrylonitrile) Applicable to Roll-to-Roll Assembly of Electric Double Layer Capacitors

(2012) Cheng-Wei Huang et al.   ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS

Flexible Hybrid Paper Made of Monolayer Co3O4 Microsphere Arrays on rGO/CNTs and Their Application in Electrochemical Capacitors

(2012) Changzhou Yuan et al.   ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS

Advanced Asymmetric Supercapacitors Based on Ni(OH)2/Graphene and Porous Graphene Electrodes with High Energy Density

(2012) Jun Yan et al.   ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS

WO3-x@Au@MnO2 Core-Shell Nanowires on Carbon Fabric for High-Performance Flexible Supercapacitors

(2012) Xihong Lu et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

General Solution Growth of Mesoporous NiCo2O4Nanosheets on Various Conductive Substrates as High-Performance Electrodes for Supercapacitors

(2012) Genqiang Zhang et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

H-TiO2@MnO2//H-TiO2@C Core-Shell Nanowires for High Performance and Flexible Asymmetric Supercapacitors

(2012) Xihong Lu et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Highly Stretchable, Integrated Supercapacitors Based on Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Films with Continuous Reticulate Architecture

(2012) Zhiqiang Niu et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Fiber Supercapacitors Utilizing Pen Ink for Flexible/Wearable Energy Storage

(2012) Yongping Fu et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Paper-Based Supercapacitors for Self-Powered Nanosystems

(2012) Longyan Yuan et al.   ANGEWANDTE CHEMIE-INTERNATIONAL EDITION

Potassium perruthenate-treated carbon nanotube sheets for flexible supercapacitors

(2012) Meredith C.K. Sellers et al.   ELECTROCHEMISTRY COMMUNICATIONS

Composite gel polymer electrolytes containing core-shell structured SiO2(Li+) particles for lithium-ion polymer batteries

(2012) Yoon-Sung Lee et al.   ELECTROCHEMISTRY COMMUNICATIONS

Atomic layer deposition of vanadium oxide on carbon nanotubes for high-power supercapacitor electrodes

(2012) Sofiane Boukhalfa et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

Seed-assisted synthesis of highly ordered TiO2@α-Fe2O3 core/shell arrays on carbon textiles for lithium-ion battery applications

(2012) Yongsong Luo et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

Polyaniline nanotube arrays as high-performance flexible electrodes for electrochemical energy storage devices

(2012) Zi-Long Wang et al.   JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY

A new nanocomposite polymer electrolyte based on poly(vinyl alcohol) incorporating hypergrafted nano-silica

(2012) Xian-Lei Hu et al.   JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY

Advanced proton conducting membrane for ultra-high rate solid flexible electrochemical capacitors

(2012) Han Gao et al.   JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY

Charge storage on nanostructured early transition metal nitrides and carbides

(2012) Priyanka Pande et al.   JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES

Binder-Free and Carbon-Free Nanoparticle Batteries: A Method for Nanoparticle Electrodes without Polymeric Binders or Carbon Black

(2012) Don-Hyung Ha et al.   NANO LETTERS

Bendable Inorganic Thin-Film Battery for Fully Flexible Electronic Systems

(2012) Min Koo et al.   NANO LETTERS

Synergistic Effects from Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes Enable Flexible and Robust Electrodes for High-Performance Supercapacitors

(2012) Yingwen Cheng et al.   NANO LETTERS

Hydrogenated TiO2 Nanotube Arrays for Supercapacitors

(2012) Xihong Lu et al.   NANO LETTERS

Stabilized TiN Nanowire Arrays for High-Performance and Flexible Supercapacitors

(2012) Xihong Lu et al.   NANO LETTERS

High performance of a solid-state flexible asymmetric supercapacitor based on graphene films

(2012) Bong Gill Choi et al.   Nanoscale

Nanostructured carbon–metal oxide composite electrodes for supercapacitors: a review

(2012) Mingjia Zhi et al.   Nanoscale

Flexible asymmetric supercapacitors with high energy and high power density in aqueous electrolytes

(2012) Yingwen Cheng et al.   Nanoscale

All-solid-state flexible supercapacitors based on papers coated with carbon nanotubes and ionic-liquid-based gel electrolytes

(2012) Yu Jin Kang et al.   NANOTECHNOLOGY

Highly flexible pseudocapacitor based on freestanding heterogeneous MnO2/conductive polymer nanowire arrays

(2012) Jonathon Duay et al.   PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY CHEMICAL PHYSICS

Laser Scribing of High-Performance and Flexible Graphene-Based Electrochemical Capacitors

(2012) M. F. El-Kady et al.   SCIENCE

Electrophoretic Build-Up of Alternately Multilayered Films and Micropatterns Based on Graphene Sheets and Nanoparticles and their Applications in Flexible Supercapacitors

(2012) Zhiqiang Niu et al.   Small

Flexible CoAl LDH@PEDOT Core/Shell Nanoplatelet Array for High-Performance Energy Storage

(2012) Jingbin Han et al.   Small

WO3−x/MoO3−xCore/Shell Nanowires on Carbon Fabric as an Anode for All-Solid-State Asymmetric Supercapacitors

(2012) Xu Xiao et al.   Advanced Energy Materials

Conductive membranes of EVA filled with carbon black and carbon nanotubes for flexible energy-storage devices

(2012) Zishou Zhang et al.   Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Cellulose nanofiber–graphene all solid-state flexible supercapacitors

(2012) Kezheng Gao et al.   Journal of Materials Chemistry A

High-performance flexible asymmetric supercapacitors based on 3D porous graphene/MnO2nanorod and graphene/Ag hybrid thin-film electrodes

(2012) Yuanlong Shao et al.   Journal of Materials Chemistry C

TiO2@C core–shell nanowires for high-performance and flexible solid-state supercapacitors

(2012) Huimin Zheng et al.   Journal of Materials Chemistry C

Layer-by-layer β-Ni(OH)2/graphene nanohybrids for ultraflexible all-solid-state thin-film supercapacitors with high electrochemical performance

(2012) Junfeng Xie et al.   Nano Energy

Supercapacitors based on nanostructured carbon

(2012) Xin Li et al.   Nano Energy

Facilitated Ion Transport in All-Solid-State Flexible Supercapacitors

(2011) Bong Gill Choi et al.   ACS Nano

Symmetrical MnO2–Carbon Nanotube–Textile Nanostructures for Wearable Pseudocapacitors with High Mass Loading

(2011) Liangbing Hu et al.   ACS Nano

Flexible Solid-State Supercapacitors Based on Carbon Nanoparticles/MnO2 Nanorods Hybrid Structure

(2011) Longyan Yuan et al.   ACS Nano

High Pseudocapacitance from Ultrathin V2O5 Films Electrodeposited on Self-Standing Carbon-Nanofiber Paper

(2011) Arunabha Ghosh et al.   ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS

Sub-Micrometer-Thick All-Solid-State Supercapacitors with High Power and Energy Densities

(2011) Fanhui Meng et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

2D Sandwich-like Sheets of Iron Oxide Grown on Graphene as High Energy Anode Material for Supercapacitors

(2011) Qunting Qu et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Low-Power Flexible Organic Light-Emitting Diode Display Device

(2011) Sunkook Kim et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Bioinspired Effective Prevention of Restacking in Multilayered Graphene Films: Towards the Next Generation of High-Performance Supercapacitors

(2011) Xiaowei Yang et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Carbon Nanocages as Supercapacitor Electrode Materials

(2011) Ke Xie et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Co3O4 Nanowire@MnO2 Ultrathin Nanosheet Core/Shell Arrays: A New Class of High-Performance Pseudocapacitive Materials

(2011) Jinping Liu et al.   ADVANCED MATERIALS

Fiber Supercapacitors Made of Nanowire-Fiber Hybrid Structures for Wearable/Flexible Energy Storage

(2011) Joonho Bae et al.   ANGEWANDTE CHEMIE-INTERNATIONAL EDITION

A review of electrode materials for electrochemical supercapacitors

(2011) Guoping Wang et al.   CHEMICAL SOCIETY REVIEWS

Flexible electrodes based on polypyrrole/manganese dioxide/polypropylene fibrous membrane composite for supercapacitor

(2011) Ming Jin et al.   ELECTROCHIMICA ACTA

A flexible graphene/multiwalled carbon nanotube film as a high performance electrode material for supercapacitors

(2011) Xiangjun Lu et al.   ELECTROCHIMICA ACTA

Graphene–polyethylenedioxythiophene conducting polymer nanocomposite based supercapacitor

(2011) Farah Alvi et al.   ELECTROCHIMICA ACTA

Highly flexible supercapacitors with manganese oxide nanosheet/carbon cloth electrode

(2011) Ying-Chu Chen et al.   ELECTROCHIMICA ACTA

Flexible energy storage devices based on graphene paper

(2011) Hyeokjo Gwon et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

Facile synthesis of large-area manganese oxide nanorod arrays as a high-performance electrochemical supercapacitor

(2011) Xihong Lu et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

Paper supercapacitors by a solvent-free drawing method

(2011) Guangyuan Zheng et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

Compact-designed supercapacitors using free-standing single-walled carbon nanotube films

(2011) Zhiqiang Niu et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

Carbon coated textiles for flexible energy storage

(2011) Kristy Jost et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

Novel insight into neutral medium as electrolyte for high-voltage supercapacitors

(2011) Krzysztof Fic et al.   Energy & Environmental Science

ZnO@MoO3 core/shell nanocables: facile electrochemical synthesis and enhanced supercapacitor performances

(2011) Gao-Ren Li et al.   JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY

Flexible supercapacitors based on cloth-supported electrodes of conducting polymer nanowire array/SWCNT composites

(2011) Kai Wang et al.   JOURNAL OF MATERIALS CHEMISTRY

Preventing Graphene Sheets from Restacking for High-Capacitance Performance

(2011) Yan Wang et al.   Journal of Physical Chemistry C

Graphene-Based Flexible Supercapacitors: Pulse-Electropolymerization of Polypyrrole on Free-Standing Graphene Films

(2011) Aaron Davies et al.   Journal of Physical Chemistry C

High rate all-solid electrochemical capacitors using proton conducting polymer electrolytes

(2011) Han Gao et al.   JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES

Enhancement of capacitance performance of flexible carbon nanofiber paper by adding graphene nanosheets

(2011) Zhixin Tai et al.   JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES

Polypyrrole/carbon nanotube nanocomposite enhanced the electrochemical capacitance of flexible graphene film for supercapacitors

(2011) Xiangjun Lu et al.   JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES

A novel redox-mediated gel polymer electrolyte for high-performance supercapacitor

(2011) Haijun Yu et al.   JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES

Metallic Few-Layered VS2Ultrathin Nanosheets: High Two-Dimensional Conductivity for In-Plane Supercapacitors

(2011) Jun Feng et al.   JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY

The Global Energy Landscape and Materials Innovation

(2011) V.S. Arunachalam et al.   MRS BULLETIN

Ultrathin Planar Graphene Supercapacitors

(2011) Jung Joon Yoo et al.   NANO LETTERS

Flexible Zn2SnO4/MnO2Core/Shell Nanocable−Carbon Microfiber Hybrid Composites for High-Performance Supercapacitor Electrodes

(2011) Lihong Bao et al.   NANO LETTERS

High-Performance Nanostructured Supercapacitors on a Sponge

(2011) Wei Chen et al.   NANO LETTERS

Transparent and flexible electrodes and supercapacitors using polyaniline/single-walled carbon nanotube composite thin films

(2011) Jun Ge et al.   Nanoscale

Microfluidic etching for fabrication of flexible and all-solid-state micro supercapacitor based on MnO2 nanoparticles

(2011) Mianqi Xue et al.   Nanoscale

Nanoporous metal/oxide hybrid electrodes for electrochemical supercapacitors

(2011) Xingyou Lang et al.   Nature Nanotechnology

A social marketing mix for renewable energy in Europe based on consumer stated preference surveys

(2011) Angeliki N. Menegaki   RENEWABLE ENERGY

True Performance Metrics in Electrochemical Energy Storage

(2011) Y. Gogotsi et al.   SCIENCE

Vanadium Oxide Nanowire-Carbon Nanotube Binder-Free Flexible Electrodes for Supercapacitors

(2011) Sanjaya D. Perera et al.   Advanced Energy Materials

An All-Solid-State Flexible Micro-supercapacitor on a Chip

(2011) Kai Wang et al.   Advanced Energy Materials

Controllable synthesis of ZnO-based core/shell nanorods and core/shell nanotubes

(2011) Zi-Long Wang et al.   RSC Advances

Fabrication of Free-Standing, Electrochemically Active, and Biocompatible Graphene Oxide−Polyaniline and Graphene−Polyaniline Hybrid Papers

(2010) Xingbin Yan et al.   ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces

Preparation and Characterization of Flexible Asymmetric Supercapacitors Based on Transition-Metal-Oxide Nanowire/Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Hybrid Thin-Film Electrodes

(2010) Po-Chiang Chen et al.   ACS Nano

Supercapacitors Based on Flexible Graphene/Polyaniline Nanofiber Composite Films

(2010) Qiong Wu et al.   ACS Nano

Transparent, Flexible Conducting Hybrid Multilayer Thin Films of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes with Graphene Nanosheets

(2010) Tae-Keun Hong et al.   ACS Nano

100% Renewable energy systems, climate mitigation and economic growth

(2010) Brian Vad Mathiesen et al.   APPLIED ENERGY

Printed energy storage devices by integration of electrodes and separators into single sheets of paper

(2010) Liangbing Hu et al.   APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS

Graphene-based nanomaterials for energy storage

(2010) Martin Pumera   Energy & Environmental Science

Brushed-on flexible supercapacitor sheets using a nanocomposite of polyaniline and carbon nanotubes

(2010) Qiang Liu et al.   JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES

DNA-Templated Synthesis of Cationic Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) Derivative for Supercapacitor Electrodes

(2010) Hongwei Tang et al.   MACROMOLECULAR RAPID COMMUNICATIONS

Highly Flexible and All-Solid-State Paperlike Polymer Supercapacitors

(2010) Chuizhou Meng et al.   NANO LETTERS

Stretchable, Porous, and Conductive Energy Textiles

(2010) Liangbing Hu et al.   NANO LETTERS

Inkjet printing of single-walled carbon nanotube/RuO2 nanowire supercapacitors on cloth fabrics and flexible substrates

(2010) Pochiang Chen et al.   Nano Research

Fabrication of carbon nanofiber–polyaniline composite flexible paper for supercapacitor

(2010) Xingbin Yan et al.   Nanoscale

A graphene sheet exfoliated with microwave irradiation and interlinked by carbon nanotubes for high-performance transparent flexible electrodes

(2010) Guoqing Xin et al.   NANOTECHNOLOGY

Ultrahigh-power micrometre-sized supercapacitors based on onion-like carbon

(2010) David Pech et al.   Nature Nanotechnology

Fabrication and characterization of flexible and high capacitance supercapacitors based on MnO2/CNT/papers

(2010) Yu Jin Kang et al.   SYNTHETIC METALS

Reduced graphene oxide by chemical graphitization

(2010) In Kyu Moon et al.   Nature Communications

Fabrication of Graphene/Polyaniline Composite Paper via In Situ Anodic Electropolymerization for High-Performance Flexible Electrode

(2009) Da-Wei Wang et al.   ACS Nano

Nano-sponge ionic liquid–polymer composite electrolytes for solid-state lithium power sources

(2009) Kang-Shyang Liao et al.   JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES

Printable Thin Film Supercapacitors Using Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

(2009) Martti Kaempgen et al.   NANO LETTERS

Measurement of the quantum capacitance of graphene

(2009) Jilin Xia et al.   Nature Nanotechnology

MATERIALS SCIENCE: Flexible Electronics

(2009) B. D. Gates   SCIENCE

Preparation and enhanced stability of flexible supercapacitor prepared from Nafion/polyaniline nanofiber

(2009) B.C. Kim et al.   SYNTHETIC METALS

Electrodeposition of MnO2 nanowires on carbon nanotube paper as free-standing, flexible electrode for supercapacitors

(2008) Shu-Lei Chou et al.   ELECTROCHEMISTRY COMMUNICATIONS

An acidic cellulose–chitin hybrid gel as novel electrolyte for an electric double layer capacitor

(2008) Shigeaki Yamazaki et al.   ELECTROCHEMISTRY COMMUNICATIONS

Flexible carbon nanotube/polyaniline paper-like films and their enhanced electrochemical properties

(2008) Chuizhou Meng et al.   ELECTROCHEMISTRY COMMUNICATIONS

The nickel–carbon asymmetric supercapacitor—Performance, energy density and electrode mass ratios

(2008) N.W. Duffy et al.   ELECTROCHIMICA ACTA

Manganese oxide electrochemical capacitor with potassium poly(acrylate) hydrogel electrolyte

(2008) Kuang-Tsin Lee et al.   JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES

Highly oriented carbon nanotube papers made of aligned carbon nanotubes

(2008) Ding Wang et al.   NANOTECHNOLOGY

Social, economical and environmental impacts of renewable energy systems

(2008) A.K. Akella et al.   RENEWABLE ENERGY

MATERIALS SCIENCE: Electrochemical Capacitors for Energy Management

(2008) J. R. Miller et al.   SCIENCE

Gelatin Hydrogel Electrolytes and Their Application to Electrochemical Supercapacitors

(2007) N. A. Choudhury et al.   JOURNAL OF THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY