Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Yifan Wang, Liuchi Li, Douglas Hofmann, Jose E. Andrade, Chiara Daraio
Summary: The study presents a structured fabric with tunable bending modulus made up of three-dimensional particles arranged into layered chain mails. When pressure is applied at their boundaries, the particles interlock and jam the chain mails, resulting in a dramatic increase in bending resistance. This property is due to the high tensile resistance of the interlocking particles, providing potential for lightweight, tunable and adaptive fabrics for various applications.
Article
Materials Science, Composites
Rajan Jagpal, Evangelos Evangelou, Richard Butler, Evripides G. Loukaides
Summary: This study demonstrates the feasibility and flexibility of the distributed magnetic clamping (DIMAC) method in multiple ply forming strategies, and proposes a method to measure the wrinkling degree. The study also analyzes the impact of ply bending mechanics on the compression folding process.
COMPOSITES COMMUNICATIONS
(2022)
Article
Mechanics
Hao Zhu, Xiang-bin Du, Dian-sen Li, Lei Jiang
Summary: In this study, a parameterized finite element model was established to investigate the compressive behaviors of 3D braided composites. The results convincingly demonstrated that the compressive behaviors depend significantly on the braiding angle, fiber volume fraction, and loading direction. This study is of great importance for accurately predicting the stiffness degradation and failure strength of the materials.
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
(2022)
Article
Polymer Science
Ana Maria Rodes-Carbonell, Josue Ferri, Eduardo Garcia-Breijo, Ignacio Montava, Eva Bou-Belda
Summary: This research focuses on investigating the influence of different fabric structures on the conductivity of flexography printing, with findings showing that fabric structure does impact the conductivity of the printing. Additionally, cotton fabric performs poorly in terms of conductivity due to its high moisture absorption capacity.
Article
Mechanics
Xinying Zhu, Wei Chen, Lulu Liu, Kailong Xu, Gang Luo, Zhenhua Zhao
Summary: This paper investigates the impact resistance and damage tolerance of 2D triaxially braided composites and 3D angle-interlock woven composites panels using high-velocity impact tests and compression after impact tests. Both materials show similar impact resistance but different damage patterns. X-ray CT scanning reveals the spatial variation in damage morphology caused by high-velocity impact.
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
(2023)
Article
Polymer Science
Md. Saiful Hoque, Ankit Saha, Hyun-Joong Chung, Patricia I. Dolez
Summary: This study investigates the effect of moisture on the long-term performance of fire-protective fabrics through accelerated hydrothermal aging. It reveals that some fabrics experience significant loss in tensile strength after exposure to hydrothermal aging, and the water-repellent finish of certain fabrics is also affected.
JOURNAL OF APPLIED POLYMER SCIENCE
(2022)
Article
Materials Science, Composites
B. Grimes, P. Giddings, N. A. Warrior
Summary: This research compares the effect of guide ring sizes on the behavior of braided preforms, aiming to improve consistency between manufacturing and simulation stages and enhance process efficiency.
PLASTICS RUBBER AND COMPOSITES
(2022)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Min-Gu Han, Seung-Hwan Chang
Summary: The compressive characteristics of egg-box energy-absorbing cores composed of plain-weave carbon/epoxy composites were analyzed via finite-element analysis and experimentally validated. The simulation technique successfully predicted the crushing behavior of the egg-box energy-absorbing core, and the corresponding failure mode under compression was estimated successfully.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2021)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Jinlei Li, Nahiene Hamila, Gildas L'Hostis, Peng Wang
Summary: Tubular braids with a hollow structure are widely used in textile composite manufacturing. This study investigates the mechanical responses of these fabrics under axial tensile load, revealing their complex behavior involving non-homogenous in-plane shearing, pure yarn extension, and a combination of the two. A locking structure was proposed as a sign of structural damage, and an analytical model was developed to describe the relationships of shear angle/shear moment and shear angle/shear load based on unit cells. The study's findings improve understanding of braided fabric forming and enhance numerical simulation of the process.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2023)
Review
Chemistry, Physical
Ana Saravanja, Tanja Pusic, Tihana Dekanic
Summary: Microplastics have become a serious environmental hazard, primarily sourced from synthetic fibers. These tiny fragments are formed when plastic breaks down due to mechanical or photochemical processes and have a widespread presence in ecosystems, posing risks to biogenic fauna and flora.
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Tao Zheng, Licheng Guo, Ruijian Sun, Zhixing Li, Hongjun Yu
Summary: This paper investigates the compressive damage mechanisms of 3D woven composites through a coupled numerical-experimental approach, and develops a comprehensive progressive damage model capable of characterizing damage accumulations. The influence of inhomogeneous fiber initial misalignments on compressive performances is parametrically investigated, and the proposed model is validated through corresponding experiments.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Composites
Niels van Hoorn, Christos Kassapoglou, Sergio Turteltaub, Wouter van den Brink
Summary: Impact experiments were conducted on thick fabric carbon/epoxy laminate specimens with different energy levels and thicknesses to characterize the damage process. The results showed that specimens with a smaller thickness ratio experienced more bending and higher delaminated area. The influence of layup on the global impact response was negligible, but it resulted in significant variations in dent depth locally.
JOURNAL OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Pedro E. S. Silva, Xueyan Lin, Maija Vaara, Mithila Mohan, Jaana Vapaavuori, Eugene M. Terentjev
Summary: Active fabrics are sought after in the development of smart textiles, and liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) hold promise as the base materials. However, producing suitable LCE filaments for standard textile production methods has been a challenge. This study presents the crafting of active fabrics using LCE yarn woven on a standard loom, allowing control over density and structure. Different weaving patterns were tested, and the twill pattern with stiffer LCE yarn exhibited the greatest blocking force, while the weft rib pattern showed over 10% reversible actuation strain on repeated heating cycles. Circular weaving patterns enabled reversible 3D shape changes in the fabric, creating cone shapes. The seamless combination of active LCE yarns with existing passive yarns could transform the creation of stimuli-responsive textiles.
ADVANCED MATERIALS
(2023)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Michela Volgare, Francesca De Falco, Roberto Avolio, Rachele Castaldo, Maria Emanuela Errico, Gennaro Gentile, Veronica Ambrogi, Mariacristina Cocca
Summary: Microplastics released from textiles during washing are the most common type of microparticles found globally. Synthetic textile microfibers are released due to mechanical and chemical stresses during washing. A study found that increasing washing load led to a decrease in microfiber release, while decreasing washing load increased released microfibers due to a synergistic effect between water-volume to fabric ratio and mechanical stress.
SCIENTIFIC REPORTS
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Patrick James Cruz, Pierre-Paul De Breuck, Gian-Marco Rignanese, Karine Glinel, Alain M. Jonas
Summary: This study investigates the impact behavior of water droplets on fabrics of different roughness and coating types. Fabrics with low roughness show lower contact angle and no roll-off, while rougher fabrics have higher contact angles and lower roll-off angles. The restitution of kinetic energy upon rebound is proportional to 1/We, indicating a constant rebound height independent of the impact velocity. Furthermore, the type of coating affects the roll-off angle, the range of Weber numbers for rebound, and to some extent, the restitution coefficient.
SURFACES AND INTERFACES
(2023)
Article
Materials Science, Composites
Miguel A. S. Matos, Vito L. Tagarielli, Silvestre T. Pinho
COMPOSITES SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(2020)
Article
Mechanics
J. A. Pascoe, S. Pimenta, S. T. Pinho
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
(2020)
Article
Materials Science, Composites
Lorenzo Mencattelli, Silvestre T. Pinho
COMPOSITES SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(2020)
Review
Materials Science, Composites
Janos Plocher, Lorenzo Mencattelli, Federico Narducci, Silvestre Pinho
Summary: Recent studies have shown that replicating structures and toughening mechanisms found in flora and fauna can help create high-performance fiber-reinforced polymers with enhanced toughness and damage tolerance. Understanding the design principles and mechanisms is crucial in manufacturing damage-tolerant bio-inspired composites.
COMPOSITES SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(2021)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
T. J. Katafiasz, E. S. Greenhalgh, G. Allegri, S. T. Pinho, P. Robinson
Summary: The study found that the mode I propagation fracture toughness tested at wet/90 degrees C showed a 176% increase compared to the dry/19 degrees C specimens, due to enhanced plastic deformation of the interlayers and more prominent fibre bridging. However, moisture-saturated coupons tested at -55 degrees C suffered a 57% reduction of mode I fracture toughness compared to those under dry/19 degrees C conditions, which is attributed to the dis-bond and consequent plucking of the thermoplastic particles from the surrounding matrix. This suggests that wet/cold conditions may represent the worst-case scenario for the interlaminar fracture performance of composite systems toughened with thermoplastic interleaves.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2021)
Article
Mechanics
N. De Carvalho, M. W. Czabaj, J. G. Ratcliffe
Summary: The proposed cohesive element formulation provides a general framework to approximate experimentally measured Traction-Separation Law (TSL) shapes, with added generality by enabling coupling with various fracture criteria. It accurately converges to Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics for quasi-brittle fracture conditions and accurately reproduces general TSLs for brittle-ductile planar fracture conditions, as well as accurately replicates mixed-mode fracture criteria. The adaptability of the approach suggests it can simulate a broad range of cohesive responses.
ENGINEERING FRACTURE MECHANICS
(2021)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
B. Yu, T. J. Katafiasz, S. Nguyen, G. Allegri, J. Finlayson, E. S. Greenhalgh, S. T. Pinho, S. Pimenta
Summary: The research shows that the translaminar fracture toughness of aerospace composites is influenced by different temperature and moisture conditions, especially with a more significant increase under wet conditions. A model has been developed to predict the effects of humidity and temperature on fracture toughness, aiding in a better understanding of toughening mechanisms in composite materials.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Composites
Nelson Vieira De Carvalho, Madhavadas Ramnath, Gerald E. Mabson, Ronald Krueger
Summary: This paper proposes a new modeling approach to simulate delamination propagation in composite laminates under both quasi-static and fatigue loading conditions, utilizing energy release rate and progressive nodal release strategy to achieve delamination growth increment and overcome convergence issues.
JOURNAL OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
(2022)
Article
Materials Science, Composites
Austin Smith, Madvahadas Ramnath, Nelson De Carvalho
Summary: This work investigates the simulated kinematics of matrix crack/delamination interaction in damage progression prediction of a double edge notch tension specimen. A divisible cohesive element (Div-CE) is implemented in a three-dimensional finite-element (FE) framework to capture the correct kinematics when matrix cracks and delaminations interact. The implementation of Div-CE is generalized to prevent artificial healing, and damage state variables are updated and mapped to new partitions to yield a general formulation. The proposed element formulation is verified using single-element models and applied to the modeling of a double edge notch tension specimen, producing close agreement with experimental results and demonstrating the ability to capture correct damage morphologies.
JOURNAL OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
(2022)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
B. Yu, T. J. Katafiasz, S. Nguyen, G. Allegri, J. Finlayson, E. S. Greenhalgh, S. T. Pinho, S. Pimenta
Summary: This study aims to quantify and model the statistical distribution of fibre pull-out lengths formed on the translaminar fracture surface of composites for the first time. X-ray computed tomography is used to measure the extent of fibre pull-out, and the relationship between pull-out length distributions, micromechanical properties, and the translaminar fracture toughness is established.
PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY A-MATHEMATICAL PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Multidisciplinary
Torquato Garulli, Tomas J. Katafiasz, Emile S. Greenhalgh, Silvestre T. Pinho
Summary: In this work, a bio-inspired microstructural concept is designed and manufactured to enhance the longitudinal compressive performance of multidirectional carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates. Taking inspiration from layered materials found in nature, such as the anchoring spicula of the deep-sea glass sponge Monoraphis chuni, the authors created various design concepts and developed a strategy to reproduce the characteristic alternation of stiff and soft regions observed in the natural material. The proposed microstructure showed significant improvements in failure load and ligament specific stress at failure compared to a baseline laminate, suggesting its potential for lightweight structure design subjected to compression loading.
COMPOSITES PART B-ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Multidisciplinary
M. Erfan Kazemi, Victor Medeau, Emile Greenhalgh, Paul Robinson, James Finlayson, Silvestre T. Pinho
Summary: This study proposes a novel design methodology using bio-inspired and interleaved layups to develop hybrid carbon fibre-reinforced polymer composite structures for improved high-velocity impact performance. The results show that the new design significantly improves energy dissipation and activates additional failure mechanisms compared to traditional layups.
COMPOSITES PART B-ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Multidisciplinary
Adam D. Whitehouse, Victor Medeau, Lorenzo Mencattelli, Bamber Blackman, Silvestre T. Pinho
Summary: This study develops a novel profiling concept to improve the mechanical performance of adhesive joints between metallic adherends and composite substrates. The experiments show that profiling the edge of the metallic adherend can increase the peak load by at least 27% and improve the stability of failure. Further experiments demonstrate that increasing the profile parameters can achieve significant mechanical performance gains. Acoustic emission monitoring data shows that profiling results in failure initiation occurring at higher loads, suggesting better stress distributions and lower peak stresses. Fracture surface analysis reveals that profiling deflects the translaminar fracture path and enhances damage tolerance through a debonding mechanism at the profile tips.
COMPOSITES PART B-ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Materials Science, Composites
M. Erfan Kazemi, Victor Medeau, Lorenzo Mencattelli, Emile Greenhalgh, Paul Robinson, James Finlayson, Silvestre T. Pinho
Summary: We introduce novel zone-based hybrid laminate concepts to enhance the high-velocity impact (HVI) response of baseline carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites. By keeping approximately 80% of the baseline CFRP mass in the hybrid concepts, similar areal weights and substantial in-plane mechanical properties are maintained. Three zones are identified along the laminate thickness, and tailored materials are incorporated to improve the HVI response. Various materials, including carbon (thin- and thick-plies), glass, Zylon, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), shape memory alloy/carbon fabric, and ceramic, alumina, and titanium sheets, are studied. All laminate concepts have comparable areal weights for meaningful comparison. Experimental results demonstrate up to 95% improvement in energy dissipation compared to the baseline quasi-isotropic (QI) CFRP configuration.
COMPOSITES SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Masahito Ueda, Yuki Suzuki, Silvestre T. Pinho
Summary: The analytical method for calculating the axial compressive stress-strain relationship of a unidirectional carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (UD CFRP) was presented, taking into account the variability of the fiber misalignment angle. It was found that the load-bearing capabilities of different fiber groups decreased significantly with greater misalignment angles. Fibers with a misalignment angle of 0.5 degrees showed a large load drop after reaching their maximum loading, leading to ultimate failure.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Wenwu Zhang, Helezi Zhou, Bin Huang, Huamin Zhou, Xiongqi Peng
Summary: This paper investigates the tool-ply friction behavior of jute/PLA biocomposites in thermoforming. A pull-through friction testing device was developed to characterize the tool-ply friction behavior of jute/PLA prepreg at elevated temperature. The effects of alkali treatment, fiber orientation, normal force, and slipping velocity were studied, and a quantitative definition of tool-ply friction behavior was achieved. The results indicate a strong relationship between tool-ply friction behavior and woven and fiber structures, indicating hydrodynamic lubrication.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Stephen Clay, Wesley Ault, Alex Faupel, Caglar Oskay, Philip Knoth, Noam N. Y. Shemesh, Rami Haj-Ali, Uri Breiman, Ido Meshi, Ofir Shor
Summary: This paper presents an experimental investigation on the compression failure mechanisms of laminated carbon fiber reinforced composites under non-standard quasi-static loading. The results demonstrate the presence of interior kink bands, surface ply splitting, and delaminations, with each failure mechanism associated with different stress levels.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Bowen Zeng, Jinlong Yang, Zhi Ni, Yucheng Fan, Ziyan Hang, Chuang Feng
Summary: This study successfully improved the pyroelectric properties of PVDF films by preparing functionally graded graphene nanoplatelet (FG-GNP) reinforced PVDF composite films. The increase in the number of layers and the concentration of GNP near the surface of the composite film were found to enhance the pyroelectric properties and temperature stability.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Shenghe Zhang, Fukai Chu, Weizhao Hu, Bibo Wang, Richard K. K. Yuen, Yuan Hu
Summary: This study improves the flame retardancy and mechanical properties of PBAT by synthesizing a phosphorus-containing intercalator and mixing it into the PBAT matrix.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Tharan Gordon, Michael R. Wisnom, Byung Chul Kim
Summary: Thickness tapering is a common strategy for efficient and lightweight composite structures, but it can introduce delamination sites. This study investigated the use of ply scarfing method to improve the compressive failure stress of tapered laminates made from thick unidirectional non-crimp fabrics. The results showed that ply scarfing suppressed delamination and increased the failure stress by 60%.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Xin Wang, Yiting Qu, Junlei Bai, Fujun Xu, Bin Ding, Xiaohua Zhang
Summary: A solution-based strategy is proposed to achieve a strong bond between fibers and matrix in powder materials, resulting in improved mechanical properties, thermal conductivity, and fracture strain of the composites. The method also offers advantages such as enhanced powder flowability and thermal stability.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Xing Zhou, Guosheng Wang, Dexiang Li, Qi Wang, Keming Zhu, Yaya Hao, Yueyang Xu, Neng Li
Summary: This study successfully synthesized polyurethane elastomer by using degraded products from waste PET, and fabricated composites with carbon nanotubes for strain sensors. The composites showed good mechanical and durability performance, indicating a potential method for recycling waste PET into valuable and functional materials.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Fei Peng, Tingting Shan, Rongrui Chen, Jiulong Shi, Di Liu, Guoqiang Zheng, Chaojun Gao, Kun Dai, Chuntai Liu, Changyu Shen
Summary: Janus polymer films with distinct surface performance and potential applications were successfully prepared by vacuum-assisted hot-compressing method and spray coating. These films exhibit decent actuation performance and rapid selfpowered sensing property, and can be used for real-time acetone monitoring system.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Biao Cheng, Huafeng Quan, Yuefeng Zhang, Dong Huang, Tongqi Li, Chong Ye, Xingming Zhou, Zhen Fan, Yafang Zhang, Ting Ouyang, Fei Han, Hongbo Liu, Jinshui Liu
Summary: In this study, a binary graphite network was constructed to improve the thermal conductivity and control the formation of micrometer-scale open pores in phase change composites. The developed composites showed a high thermal conductivity and phase change enthalpy, making them promising for thermal control in space optical-mechanical systems and other critical aerospace components.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Shihao Zuo, Fei Cheng, Guangming Yang, Jiangzhou Li, Yongjun Deng, Guangjun Gou, Xuejun Cui, Yunsen Hu, Xiaozhi Hu
Summary: Micro-arc oxidation (MAO) treatment was used to modify aluminum (Al) alloys in order to improve bond strength with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP). The treatment successfully created a porous surface with better hardness, roughness, and wetting, and introduced resin pre-coating (RPC) and carbon nanotube (CNT) fiber bridging to improve the bonding interface. The combined treatments significantly increased the bond strength by up to 156.1%, indicating the feasibility of MAO as an alternative method for manufacturing high-performance Al-CFRP composites in industrial production.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
James Kratz, Christophe Paris, Karolina Gaska, Vincent Maes, Ivana Partridge, Philippe Olivier
Summary: Faster heating rates and higher process temperatures can reduce the total process time while achieving the same degree-of-cure. Thermal analysis shows that thermoplastic interleaf particles melt at the recommended curing temperature. A short dwell at a lower temperature can prevent the mixing of thermoplastic particles and thermoset pre-polymer.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Thomas Maierhofer, Evripides G. Loukaides, Craig Carr, Chiara Bisagni, Richard Butler
Summary: Joining thermoset composites via resistance welding provides an efficient method for aerospace structures with benefits such as high-volume manufacturing and simplified surface preparation. The influence of welding parameters on joint performance is assessed using Mode I fracture toughness testing. A Bayesian approach is employed to select high-performance parameters.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Jiangan You, Ling Cai, Ronghua Yu, Haiping Xing, Jian Xue, Ying Li, Zhiwei Jiang, Dongmei Cui, Tao Tang
Summary: In response to the global environmental pollution crisis caused by waste plastics, recyclable design is an effective solution. A CPVC/PUA nanocomposite foam was developed using the plasticizing-foaming-reinforcing strategy, combined with catalytic carbonization. The foam exhibited high expansion ratio, robustness, solvent resistance, flame-triggered shape memory effect, and ablation resistance. The foam could be directly upcycled into functional carbon foam with attractive electromagnetic interference shielding performance.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Siyao Chen, Zhiyu Chen, Yangling Ou, Junwei Lyu, Junning Li, Xiangyang Liu, Yang Liu
Summary: In this study, we demonstrated the significant effect of composite interface on temperature increase in electrical heaters. By selectively fluorinating the outer walls of carbon nanotubes and compositing them with cellulose nanofibers, improved interfacial phonon diffusion was achieved, leading to a higher temperature increase rate.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)
Article
Engineering, Manufacturing
Yanjun He, Agnieszka Suliga, Alex Brinkmeyer, Mark Schenk, Ian Hamerton
Summary: A new thermoset resin system based on a polybenzoxazine blend showed good performance under high ATOX irradiation. It reduced erosion yield by forming a silicon-rich surface layer and improved the mechanical properties of CFRP laminates.
COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING
(2024)