Hidden risks and benefits of natural enemy-mediated indirect effects

Polyphagous natural enemies can mediate a variety of indirect interactions between resource populations. Such indirect interactions are often reciprocally negative (i.e. apparent competition), but the sign of effects between resource populations can be any combination of positive (+), negative (-), or neutral (0). In this article we focus on parasitoids to illustrate the importance of natural enemy-mediated indirect interactions in predicting risk and efficacy in biological control. We review recent findings to illustrate how an improved understanding of parasitoid behavioral ecology may increase model accuracy.