Article
Thermodynamics
Hamed Shariatmadar, Pavlos G. Aleiferis, R. P. Lindstedt
Summary: This study presents experimental data on the size distribution of soot particles and investigates the variation of particle size distribution in turbulent flames under different conditions.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2022)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Zhixuan Zhang, Xu Han, Mingda Wang, Zhengjie Wu, Xiang Sun, Shaohua Wu
Summary: A new and robust numerical approach, called the hybrid sectional moment projection method, is proposed for solving the population balance equations in laminar premixed flames. This approach combines the fixed sectional method and moment projection method, and adopts a number of quadrature nodes within each section to describe complex particle interactions. Testing and simulation results show that the new approach outperforms the conventional fixed sectional method in terms of numerical accuracy and computational efficiency.
Article
Energy & Fuels
Shruthi Dasappa, Joaquin Camacho
Summary: The study examines soot formation in premixed laminar flames burning C6 hydrocarbon fuels, finding that fuel structure significantly influences the onset and evolution of soot particles, with different fuels impacting soot formation speed and particle size distribution. The majority of the size distribution is composed of aggregates as indicated by atomic force microscopy analysis.
Article
Thermodynamics
Can Shao, Felipe Campuzano, Yitong Zhai, Haoyi Wang, Wen Zhang, S. Mani Sarathy
Summary: This study investigated particle size distributions and chemical compositions of soot in ethylene-oxygen flames with and without ammonia doping. The results showed that ammonia doping inhibits soot formation and decreases the size and volume fraction of soot particles. This was attributed to the generation of C-N species in ethylene-ammonia flames, which prevented carbon from participating in soot precursor formation.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2022)
Article
Thermodynamics
I. A. Mulla, J. Yon, D. Honore, C. Lacour, A. Cessou, B. Lecordier
Summary: This study investigates the impact of jet-exit Reynolds number on soot particle size and flame temperature in n-butane jet flames, as well as the correlation of temperature with soot volume fraction, PAH, and OH. The results show how peak temperature and PAH formation temperature shift with different Reynolds numbers, and how soot mode diameter changes along the flame axis. The comprehensive database generated from this research will contribute to the development and validation of turbulence and soot chemistry models for practical fuel applications.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2021)
Article
Thermodynamics
H. Shariatmadar, R. P. Lindstedt
Summary: This study investigates the impact of flow on the development of particle size distributions (PSDs) in premixed turbulent flames. The results show that using propene as the fuel leads to a two order of magnitude increase in smaller particles compared to using ethene fuel, with median and mean mobility diameters below 10 nm.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMBUSTION INSTITUTE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Xiao Jiang, Tat Leung Chan
Summary: The study successfully validated the effectiveness of the LPT-WFMC method in studying soot formation and evolution, and demonstrated its advantage in predicting soot particle size distributions at larger size regime.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF NUMERICAL METHODS FOR HEAT & FLUID FLOW
(2022)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Mengxiang Zhou, Fuwu Yan, Xianglin Zhong, Lei Xu, Yu Wang
Summary: Oxygenated biofuels like bioethanol and biodiesel are commonly used as clean fuel additives to reduce greenhouse gas and soot emissions. Experimental and numerical studies have shown that the effect of ethanol on soot formation varies depending on combustion conditions, with oxygen-related reactions playing a crucial role in explaining the opposing effects of ethanol addition in different flame configurations.
Article
Thermodynamics
Fabian P. Hagen, Petros Vlavakis, Malte Seitz, Thomas Kloevekorn, Henning Bockhorn, Rainer Suntz, Dimosthenis Trimis
Summary: The research focuses on the development of an intrusive particle sampling system for tracking the evolution of soot nanoparticles in ethylene counterflow diffusion flames. The goal is to determine the mobility size distributions using the developed probe system coupled with differential mobility analysis. Preliminary experiments study the dilution ratio and particle losses during intrusive particle sampling. Results demonstrate that the particle sampling system is capable of tracking the development of particle size distributions in counterflow flames and agrees well with non-intrusive laser-based diagnostics.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMBUSTION INSTITUTE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Amir Rowhani, Zhiwei Sun, Paul R. Medwell, Graham J. Nathan, Bassam B. Dally
Summary: Simultaneous measurements of soot concentrations and velocity flowfields were conducted in turbulent non-premixed bluff-body flames to understand soot evolution and its correlation with strain rate and residence time. The study found a relationship between soot volume fraction and total flame volume in flames with different bluff-body diameters.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMBUSTION INSTITUTE
(2021)
Article
Thermodynamics
Francisco Cepeda, Rodrigo Demarco, Felipe Escudero, Juan Jose Cruz Villanueva, Gonzalo Carvajal, Andres Fuentes
Summary: This study investigated the relationship between soot concentration and temperature, and provided new data for time-dependent numerical simulations by measuring local radiative heat flux on transient laminar flames. Results showed that forced condition significantly changed soot production, temperature distribution, and radiative properties, enhancing flame radiation.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2022)
Article
Thermodynamics
Kevin Gleason, Francesco Carbone, Alessandro Gomez
Summary: The study quantified soot formation in partially premixed counterflow flames of ethylene, investigating the effects of peak temperature and equivalence ratio on soot formation. The research showed that adjusting the flame composition and structure can impact soot volume fraction and particle size.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2022)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Chinonso Ezenwajiaku, Midhat Talibi, Ramanarayanan Balachandran
Summary: This study focuses on the formation and growth characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in inverse diffusion flames of various hydrocarbon fuels enriched with H-2. The results show that only the addition of H-2 to CH4 significantly reduces PAH concentrations as the flame length increases. Additionally, the growth rate of PAHs remains relatively stable regardless of the fuel bonding, molecular structure, and H:C ratio.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Xiaotong Mi, Ahmad Saylam, Torsten Endres, Christof Schulz, Thomas Dreier
Summary: The formation of soot at near-threshold conditions in laminar premixed ethylene/air flames (with ethene as a fuel, phi around 1.90) at pressures from 1 to 10 bar was studied. It was found that the soot volume fraction scales with pressure in a power-law function, the soot diameter increases with pressure and equivalence ratio, and the reliability of TiRe-LII particle diameter determination under near-threshold conditions is good.
Article
Energy & Fuels
Hong-Quan Do, Alessandro Faccinetto, Luc-Sy Tran, Pascale Desgroux, Laurent Gasnot, Abderrahman El Bakali, Xavier Mercier
Summary: This study reports new experimental data on the impact of H-2 on slightly sooting methane flames. It shows that the introduction of H-2 strongly influences the formation of aromatic species and soot, as well as the nucleation and growth processes of the soot particles. The study also presents a novel analytical methodology for determining the volume fraction and size density function of soot particles.
Article
Thermodynamics
Tanusree Chatterjee, Chiara Saggese, Shijun Dong, Vaibhav Patel, Katherine S. Lockwood, Henry J. Curran, Nicole J. Labbe, Scott W. Wagnon, William J. Pitz
Summary: The low temperature oxidation kinetics of pentanol isomers, including 1-pentanol, 2-pentanol, and 3-pentanol, have been studied in this research. A newly developed kinetic mechanism based on recent experimental and theoretical calculations accurately predicts the combustion performance of these three pentanol isomers. The comprehensive validation of the proposed kinetic model shows satisfactory qualitative and quantitative predictions when compared to experimental data.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMBUSTION INSTITUTE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Song Cheng, Chiara Saggese, S. Scott Goldsborough, Scott W. Wagnon, William J. Pitz
Summary: This study investigates the chemical kinetic interactions of NO with a multi-component gasoline surrogate using experimental and modeling methods. It is found that adding NO promotes low-temperature heat release rate and ignition reactivity at low addition levels, while saturation or inhibiting effects are observed at higher NO concentrations. In the intermediate-temperature range, adding NO only enhances reactivity.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMBUSTION INSTITUTE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Yuxin Zhou, Mengda Wang, Qingyan He, Xiaoqing You
Summary: By studying the soot maturity in a series of laminar premixed ethylene flames, it is found that soot particles grow bigger and become more mature in flames with higher maximum flame temperature (1809 and 1869 K), while soot maturity remains almost unchanged in flames with lower maximum flame temperature (1630 and 1724 K). The growth of soot particles is mainly controlled by particle coagulation or PAH condensation, rather than surface reactions. Higher equivalence ratio leads to faster soot size growth, but the particles from flames with lower equivalence ratio are more mature than those from flames with higher equivalence ratio.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMBUSTION INSTITUTE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Sascha Apazeller, Munko Gonchikzhapov, Monika Nanjaiah, Tina Kasper, Irenaus Wlokas, Hartmut Wiggers, Christof Schulz
Summary: A new burner has been developed for spray-flame synthesis, enabling observation and modeling of reaction processes with precise control and homogeneity. The burner provides a laminar and steady flame, allowing investigation of reactions independent of spray formation and turbulent mixing. It also allows the use of reactants that would otherwise react before reaching the flame. Experimental data and simulations using a reduced reaction mechanism demonstrate the suitability of the burner for modeling precursor reactions in spray-flame synthesis.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMBUSTION INSTITUTE
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yuxin Zhou, Dingyu Hou, Xiaoqing You
Summary: The study examines soot particle size distributions in iron doped premixed ethylene flames using scanning mobility particle sizer measurements. It is found that iron addition promotes the growth in soot particle size, mainly due to enhanced particle coagulation. Molecular dynamics simulations investigating the coagulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) clusters reveal that iron addition increases coagulation efficiency, but has no significant effect on collision frequency. The simulation results also show that iron addition promotes coronene cluster growth, leading to larger soot particle size in iron-doped flames.
JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY A
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Jackson Crane, Jonathan T. Lipkowicz, Xian Shi, Irenaeus Wlokas, Andreas M. Kempf, Hai Wang
Summary: Three-dimensional detonation simulations are performed in square channel and round tube geometries, and are compared with two-dimensional simulations and experiments to understand the effect of confinement and boundaries on detonation structure. Results show that 3D detonations have highly inhomogeneous blast dynamics due to the intersections of many transverse waves, resulting in extreme thermodynamic states and overdriven wave velocities. The simulations in different geometries exhibit different detonation cell sizes and blast dynamics.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMBUSTION INSTITUTE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Mengda Wang, Xiaoqing You
Summary: This work investigates the adsorption behavior of pyrene on the surface of 2-nm iron oxide nanoparticles in the temperature range of 600-2500 K using ReaxFF molecular dynamics simulations. The simulation results show that pyrene can form a core-shell structure by either physical or chemical adsorption on the iron oxide nanoparticle surface, consistent with experimental observations. At lower temperatures (600-1200 K), pyrene dimers are formed before physically adsorbing on the nanoparticle surface, while at higher temperatures (2000-2500 K), pyrene undergoes H abstraction by the oxygen atom of iron oxide and forms a C-Fe bond. In the intermediate temperature range (1200-2000 K), both physical and chemical adsorptions can occur.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMBUSTION INSTITUTE
(2023)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Qi Zheng, Xian Shi, Jinyang Jiang, Haiyan Mao, Nicholas Montes, Nikolaos Kateris, Jeffrey A. Reimer, Hai Wang, Haimei Zheng
Summary: This study investigates the influences of small sizes and defects on cubic diamond nanostructures using transmission electron microscopy, electron diffraction, multislice simulations, and other techniques. The experimental and simulation results reveal that cubic nanodiamonds smaller than 5 nm and with defects can display forbidden reflections, providing insights into the structural complexity and the impact of defects on nanodiamond structures.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Environmental
Brenda Lopez, Kent Johnson, Heejung Jung
Summary: Decades of regulations have reduced tailpipe PM emissions, but non-tailpipe PM emissions are not regulated and are expected to become a significant source of traffic-related PM emissions. This study aims to establish a test method and analysis for measuring brake activity of heavy-duty vehicles. The results provide critical information for accurately estimating emission inventory.
JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Claudia-F. Lopez-Camara, Chiara Saggese, William J. Pitz, Xiao Shao, Hong G. Imc, Derek Dunn-Rankin
Summary: Electric fields can alter the shape and behavior of small laminar flames by affecting charged species produced during combustion. This study introduces a simplified chemical kinetic model for methane-air combustion that incorporates minor excited species (CH* and OH*) and charged species (H3O+, HCO+, C2H3O+, CH5O+, O-2(-), OH-, e(-), CO3- , CHO2- , O-, CHO3-). The model's results have been verified through comparisons with detailed chemistry simulations and experimental observations, showcasing its computational efficiency compared to the equivalent detailed chemistry model. This simplified model will be utilized for simulations involving applied electric fields in future research.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Piotr Cwiek, Patrick Wollny, Matthieu R. Lalanne, Monika Nanjaiah, Maayan Cohen, Noam Horodi, Irenaeus Wlokas, Igor Rahinov
Summary: The temperature and species concentration history of gas-borne nanoparticles in a flame have a significant impact on their size, morphology, composition, and crystallinity. In a recent study, optical emission measurements were used to analyze Fe(CO)5-doped nanoparticles in a fuel-lean flame, revealing that the early-formed nanoparticles had higher temperatures than the gas and underwent rapid disintegration. Monte-Carlo simulations indicated the involvement of heterogeneous reactive processes at the particle surface, such as reduction, oxidation, growth, and etching. The limits and validity of the flame-particle interaction model were tested by adjusting the oxidation-reduction and growth-etching balance through varying the equivalence ratio (0.25 < ? < 0.5).
APPLICATIONS IN ENERGY AND COMBUSTION SCIENCE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Matthieu R. Lalanne, Sheikh Ahmed Mujaddadi, Peter Fjodorow, Sergey Cheskis, Holger Somnitz, Irenaeus Wlokas, Jurgen Herzler, Mustapha Fikri, Christof Schulz, Igor Rahinov
Summary: The reaction between Fe atoms and O2 in a mixture of IPC and oxygen has been studied using a combination of ARAS and ICAS methods. FeO was found to be present at temperatures below 1400K, leading to a reassessment of rate coefficients for different Fe oxidation channels.
APPLICATIONS IN ENERGY AND COMBUSTION SCIENCE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Seung-Jin Baik, Patrick Wollny, Monika Nanjaiah, Irenaeus Wlokas, Andreas Kempf
Summary: The SpraySyn burner was developed for studying nanoparticle synthesis from spray flames. It involved various diagnostic methods and simulations from different research groups within the DFG priority program SPP1980. The research focused on iron oxide nanoparticle formation from iron nitrate dissolved in a mixture of ethanol and ethyl hexanoic acid. The study utilized large eddy simulations to investigate the synthesis flame and three different models to predict nanoparticle dynamics.
APPLICATIONS IN ENERGY AND COMBUSTION SCIENCE
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Environmental
Boxin Zhang, Indu Aravind, Sisi Yang, Sizhe Weng, Bofan Zhao, Grace Johnson, Lucas Brown, Jason Olfert, Heejung Jung, Stephen B. Cronin
Summary: This study evaluates the beneficial effects of discharging nanosecond pulse transient plasma (NPTP) in a coaxial electrostatic precipitator for capturing nanoscale soot particles (similar to 50 nm) produced by an ethylene flame. The results show that NPTP can significantly enhance the removal efficiency of soot particles at lower DC voltages.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE-ADVANCES
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Xiaoqing You, Ying Li, Huangrui Mo, Yuxin Gui
Summary: In this study, the Lennard-Jones parameters of benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons interacting with bath gases were theoretically studied using three different computing methods. The results showed that while the SA method is reliable and the sigma-epsilon method is efficient, the eta-xi method is both reliable and efficient, capturing the anisotropic effects of molecular structure on L-J parameters better than empirical methods.
FARADAY DISCUSSIONS
(2022)
Article
Thermodynamics
Yifan Yang, Haodong Zhang, Linye Li, Mingming Gu, Xi Xia, Fei Qi
Summary: This paper investigates the formation of a blue whirl by controlling tangential and radial airflows. By using a unique fire whirl apparatus, the blue whirl can be formed directly upon ignition without going through the transient phase. The study also discovers new flame regimes and explores the mechanism behind the formation and transition of the blue whirl.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Xiaobin Qi, Songyan Gao, Zhiping Zhu, Qinggang Lyu, Haixia Zhang
Summary: This study experimentally investigated the propagation characteristics of reverse combustion under oxygen-limited and enriched conditions. The contribution of volatiles gas-phase oxidation and char surface oxidation to reverse combustion was evaluated. The results showed that oxygen enrichment expanded the operating range of oxygen flow rate for reverse combustion and enhanced the low-temperature oxidation of the solid fuel. The findings provide a better understanding of the driving mechanism of reverse combustion and have important implications for efficient thermal conversion of solid fuels.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Bingjie Chen, Peng Liu, Bingzhi Liu, Zhandong Wang, Xiang Gao, William L. Roberts
Summary: In this study, the low temperature oxidation of 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene was investigated using experiments and numerical simulations. The results showed the presence of toxic oxygenated aromatic compounds and proposed potential formation pathways. The numerical simulations accurately predicted the mole fractions of most compounds, but some compounds were missing.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Meng Sui, Zhiheng Zhu, Fashe Li, Hua Wang
Summary: The effect of adding ferrocene as a combustion catalyst to Jatropha biodiesel on its pyrolysis and combustion performance is investigated. The results show that adding ferrocene reduces activation energy and harmful emissions while improving combustion efficiency.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Manaf Sheyyab, Mohammed Abdulrahman, Subharaj Hossain, Patrick T. Lynch, Eric K. Mayhew, Kenneth Brezinsky
Summary: Fuel surrogates, simplified representations of complex fuels, accurately model speciation results and reaction kinetics, reproduce the ignition quality and chemical functional group compositions of their parent fuels.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Yan Wang, Shumeng Xie, Hannes Bottler, Yiqing Wang, Xinyi Chen, Arne Scholtissek, Christian Hasse, Zheng Chen
Summary: This study investigates how flow affects the ignition and transition process of a cool flame. The results show that the ignition energy determines the highest temperature and the strain rate influences the flame propagation and the transition from cool flame to hot flame.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Tanusree Chatterjee, Mengyuan Wang, Goutham Kukkadapu, Chih-Jen Sung, William J. Pitz
Summary: Cycloalkanes, including cyclohexane, are important hydrocarbons in transportation fuels. However, limited oxidation data at low-to-intermediate temperatures and inadequate predictive ability of kinetic models have hindered the understanding and improvement of cyclohexane oxidation. This study provides experimental and modeling results to develop a more accurate kinetic model for cyclohexane oxidation.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Tao Wu, Erik Hagen, Haiyang Wang, Dylan J. Kline, Michael R. Zachariah, Carole Rossi
Summary: It was found that incorporating CuO into Al/I2O5 can significantly reduce the ignition time and enhance the combustion performance. The optimum composition of 80/20 wt% of I2O5/CuO shows a 30 times shorter ignition time and produces a peak pressure and pressurization rate 4 and 26 times greater than traditional Al/I2O5. A series of characterizations helped unravel the cause of improvement and propose a reaction mechanism for this ternary Al/I2O5/CuO system. This study proposes a facile, inexpensive, and efficient way to enhance the combustion performance of Al/I2O5 biocidal nanoenergetic materials.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Mahmoud Gadalla, Shervin Karimkashi, Islam Kabil, Ossi Kaario, Tianfeng Lu, Ville Vuorinen
Summary: In this study, the flame initiation process in dual-fuel spray assisted combustion is explored through scale-resolved simulations, providing numerical evidence on the initiation of premixed flames. It is found that there is a transient mixed-mode combustion phase after ignition, followed by a primarily deflagrative combustion mode. The interactions between turbulence and premixed flame front are characterized in the corrugated regime.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Neeraj Kumar Pradhan, Arindrajit Chowdhury, Debasis Chakraborty, Neeraj Kumbhakarna
Summary: In this study, a modified model for predicting the burn rate of composite solid propellants is proposed. The model has been validated against experimental and theoretical results, and it outperforms existing models in all cases considered. The model is highly robust and provides results quickly, making it highly efficient in terms of time, effort, and computational resources.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Lili Ye, Zhihe Zhang, Fan Wang, Xiaodong Wang, Yiming Lu, Lei Zhang
Summary: This study investigated the pyrolysis mechanism of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) explosive using ab initio and kinetic modeling simulations. The results showed that N-NO2 bond fission and C-H beta-scission are important channels in the decomposition of HMX.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Andrei N. Lipatnikov, Hsuchew Lee, Peng Dai, Minping Wan, Vladimir A. Sabelnikov
Summary: This study investigates the importance of thermodiffusive and hydrodynamic instabilities of laminar flames in turbulent flows through numerical simulations. The analysis suggests that laminar flame instabilities play a minor role at sufficiently high Karlovitz numbers.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Shijie Xu, Yue Qiu, Leilei Xu, Jianqing Huang, Shen Li, Elna J. K. Nilsson, Zhongshan Li, Weiwei Cai, Marcus Alden, Xue-Song Bai
Summary: Metal powder is a promising carbon-free and recyclable energy carrier. In this study, a computational model for the combustion and phase change of micron-sized iron particles was proposed and validated. The model successfully captures the melting, surface reactions, cooling, and solidification processes. The study also reveals a two-stage solidification phenomenon and identifies a diffusion-controlled mechanism during the melting process. The reaction between iron and CH4/O2/N2 flame products is found to play a significant role in the iron combustion process.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Khalid Aljohani, Abd El-Sabor Mohamed, Haitao Lu, Henry J. Curran, S. Mani Sarathy, Aamir Farooq
Summary: This study investigates the impact of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and NOx on the ignition delay time of oxygenated gasoline. A gasoline surrogate model is developed and the experimental data are useful for predicting fuel ignition behavior in internal combustion engines. The results show that EGR inhibits gasoline reactivity, while NOx has a promoting effect at high temperatures. This research is important for understanding the combustion behavior of gasoline in engines.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Chengcheng Ao, Jia Yan, Tong Yan, Lidong Zhang, Pan Wang
Summary: This study investigates the inhibitory effect of ammonia blended with hydrocarbon fuels on soot formation. The results show that there is a chemical interaction between ammonia and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), blocking the formation of larger PAHs.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME
(2024)