Review
Polymer Science
Fatheali A. Shilar, Sharanabasava V. Ganachari, Veerabhadragouda B. Patil, T. M. Yunus Khan, Naif Mana Almakayeel, Saleh Alghamdi
Summary: This paper investigates the impact of important nanomaterials on the performance of geopolymer concrete. The study reveals that increasing the alkaline to binder and sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratios can enhance the strength development of geopolymer concrete. The addition of small quantities of nanomaterials further improves the strength and structural stability of the concrete, enhancing its durability.
Article
Materials Science, Ceramics
Thamer Alomayri, Ali Raza, Faiz Shaikh
Summary: The addition of nano silica significantly enhances the mechanical properties and microstructure of micro steel fiber reinforced fly ash geopolymer composites, producing a denser matrix and refining the interfacial zones. The optimal amount of nano silica recommended for optimal behavior in these composites is 2%.
CERAMICS INTERNATIONAL
(2021)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
E. Haily, N. Zari, R. Bouhfid, A. Qaiss
Summary: This research focuses on using natural fibers in the reinforcement of geopolymer mortars based on phosphate industry by-products. The results show that pine cone fibers create fewer defects in the geopolymer mortar matrix than glass fibers, and are more resistant to moisture. Therefore, pine cone fibers could potentially replace synthetic fibers in the reinforcement of phosphate sludge-based geopolymer mortars.
JOURNAL OF BUILDING ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Ar Razi Alvee, Rizka Malinda, Alfie Muna Akbar, Resa Dwi Ashar, Cut Rahmawati, Thamer Alomayri, Ali Raza, Faiz Uddin Ahmed Shaikh
Summary: This study found that adding nano-silica and crystalline admixtures significantly improved the mechanical properties of geopolymer pastes, increasing bulk density, yield stress, compressive strength, and flexural strength. SEM, XRD, and FTIR analyses showed that the main effect of nano-silica and CAs was to enhance C-S-H bonds and self-healing products in geopolymer pastes.
CASE STUDIES IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
(2022)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Fatih Kantarci, Ibrahim Turkmen, Enes Ekinci
Summary: This study aimed to enhance the performance of volcanic tuff-based geopolymer concrete under elevated temperatures by using nano-silica, micro-silica, and styrene-butadiene latex additives. The experimental results showed that the addition of micro-silica significantly improved the high-temperature performance of the concrete.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2021)
Article
Engineering, Multidisciplinary
Mingli Cao, Xiaoling Yuan, Xing Ming, Chaopeng Xie
Summary: Micro-calcium carbonate and nano-calcium carbonate can improve the microstructure and mechanical properties of cement and concrete, and their effects at high temperatures have been investigated.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Linfeng Zhang, Yingfan Wang, Boyin Ding, Jiaming Gu, Neven Ukrainczyk, Jingming Cai
Summary: This study aims to develop geopolymer-based composites for geothermal energy applications. The addition of silicon carbide (SiC) powder was found to improve the compressive and flexural strength of geopolymer composites, while the influence of SiC particles was insignificant. The combined application of SiC powder and SiC particle increased the thermal conductivity of geopolymer composites, making it a suitable material for geothermal energy applications. The addition of silicon carbide was also concluded to improve the heat exchange rate and heat utilization efficiency of energy piles.
JOURNAL OF CLEANER PRODUCTION
(2023)
Article
Multidisciplinary Sciences
Thamer Alomayri
Summary: The study investigated the mechanical properties of micro steel fibre-reinforced fly ash-based geopolymer pastes by adding different contents of nano CaCO3. It was found that the utilization of 2% nano CaCO3 in the paste introduced optimum mechanical performance in terms of compressive strength, flexural strength, fracture toughness, elastic modulus, toughness modulus, and hardness.
JOURNAL OF TAIBAH UNIVERSITY FOR SCIENCE
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Ong Shee-Ween, Heah Cheng-Yong, Liew Yun-Ming, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Ho Li Ngee, Lynette Wei Ling Chan, Ooi Wan-En, Nur Ain Jaya, Ng Yong-Sing
Summary: This research focuses on utilizing low alkali activator content and cold pressing technique to form fly ash-based geopolymers under room temperature conditions. The results demonstrate that specific parameters can lead to optimized mechanical properties in the geopolymers.
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY-JMR&T
(2021)
Review
Chemistry, Physical
Ahmed Saeed, Hadee Mohammed Najm, Amer Hassan, Mohanad Muayad Sabri Sabri, Shaker Qaidi, Nuha S. Mashaan, Khalid Ansari
Summary: Portland cement is an energy-intensive building material that contributes to global warming and climate change. Efforts are being made to develop sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives, such as geopolymer concrete. Geopolymer concrete has comparable or even superior durability and strength compared to traditional concrete, and it reduces CO2 emissions by utilizing industrial wastes as raw materials. This literature review discusses the engineering properties and microstructure of geopolymer concrete and highlights its merits in construction applications.
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Fatheali A. Shilar, Sharanabasava V. Ganachari, Veerabhadragouda B. Patil
Summary: The utilization of nanomaterials in composite materials is a trending research area, with different types of nanomaterials having varying impacts on the properties and structures of composite materials.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2022)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Ali Ihsan Celik, Yasin Onuralp Ozkilic, Alireza Bahrami, Ibrahim Y. Hakeem
Summary: This study shows that combining 5% micro silica with 1% lathe scraps provides the highest strength in concrete. Adding 5% micro silica significantly improves compressive, flexural, and splitting tensile strengths, while higher additions of 10% and 20% decrease these strengths. Moreover, incorporating 1% lathe scraps leads to considerable increases in strength, but higher additions of 2% and 3% reduce the capacity.
CASE STUDIES IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
(2023)
Article
Materials Science, Ceramics
Thamer Alomayri
Summary: The study investigated the mechanical performance of basalt fiber-reinforced fly ash-based geopolymer pastes with varying contents of nano CaCO3. Results showed that 3% nano CaCO3 improved compressive strength and hardness, while 2% nano CaCO3 enhanced flexural strength, impact strength, and fracture toughness of the composite paste. SEM analysis indicated that nano CaCO3 addition improved microstructure and densification of geopolymer paste.
CERAMICS INTERNATIONAL
(2021)
Article
Computer Science, Interdisciplinary Applications
Abdelaziz Yousuf Mohamed, Orhan Canpolat, Mukhallad M. Al-Mashhadani
Summary: This study investigates the mechanical and durability properties of geopolymer concrete containing fibers and recycled aggregate. The results show that the combination of 10% recycled aggregate and 0.8% elastoplastic fiber can achieve geopolymer concrete with enhanced tensile strength.
COMPUTERS AND CONCRETE
(2022)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Peem Nuaklong, Kit Janprasit, Pitcha Jongvivatsakul
Summary: Incorporating rice husk ash led to an improvement in compressive strength of high-calcium fly ash geopolymer modified with borax, while using borax instead of sodium silicate resulted in decreased strength. The decrease in strength when using borax was attributed to the increase in crystalline nature of reaction products caused by lower Si/Al ratios in the gel phases formed.
JOURNAL OF BUILDING ENGINEERING
(2021)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Babar Ali, Rawaz Kurda, Hawreen Ahmed, Rayed Alyousef
Summary: Recycled tyre steel fiber (RSF) can be used as a fiber reinforcement to improve the ductility of high-performance concrete (HPC). In comparison with manufactured steel fiber (MSF), RSF shows higher effectiveness in terms of splitting-tensile and flexural-tensile strength, while the chloride permeability of RSF-reinforced concrete is similar to that of MSF-reinforced concrete.
JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE CEMENT-BASED MATERIALS
(2023)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Babar Ali, Hawreen Ahmed, Hisham Hafez, Ameni Brahmia, Mohamed Hechmi El Ouni, Ali Raza
Summary: This study evaluates the impact of different fiber types and contents on the life cycle cost and CO2-footprint of concrete pavement. The results show that steel fiber-reinforced concrete performs better than glass fiber-reinforced concrete and polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete in terms of overall mechanical performance, but it has a higher carbon footprint. In contrast, glass fiber-reinforced concrete and polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete demonstrate the highest reductions in pavement cost and carbon footprint.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Civil
Muhammad Sohail Jameel, Ali Raza, Mohamed Hechmi El Ouni, Yasser Alashker
Summary: The aim of this study was to improve the mechanical properties of polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete at elevated temperatures by adding activated and inactivated fly ash. The compressive strength of activated fly ash concrete was 52% and 29.8% higher than inactivated fly ash concrete at 7-days and 28-days, respectively. The use of fly ash enhanced the concrete's strength at elevated temperatures.
EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Civil
Muhammad Saeed Qasim, Faisal Shabbir, Qaiser uz Zaman Khan, Ali Raza
Summary: This study investigates the self-sensing capabilities of cement composites using different grades of carbon black. The results show that composites with higher percentages of carbon black exhibit reversible piezo-resistive behavior and improved compressive strength. Therefore, it is suggested that carbon black-based cement composites can be used for monitoring strains in civil engineering infrastructures without reducing the compressive strength of concrete.
IRANIAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY-TRANSACTIONS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Jamel Baili, Ali Raza, Marc Azab, Khawar Ali, Mohamed Hechmi El Ouni, Hammad Haider, Muhammad Ahmad Farooq
Summary: This research investigates the structural performance of glass fiber-reinforced polymer and steel-reinforced concrete columns. Experimental results show that columns with glass hybrid fibers have lower axial strengths and higher ductility indices compared to columns with steel hybrid fibers. Neural network models and theoretical equations are developed to accurately predict the performance of these materials.
MECHANICS OF ADVANCED MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Civil
Faisal Shabbir, Qaiser uz Zaman Khan, Muhammad Usman Rashid, Ameer Muslim, Ali Raza
Summary: This study compared the effects of steel-fiber reinforced concrete and carbon-fiber reinforced concrete on controlling micro cracking in concrete. The results showed that the use of steel fiber and carbon fiber can improve the compressive strength and tensile strength of concrete, and reduce the extent of micro cracking.
IRANIAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY-TRANSACTIONS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Marine
Yuanxing Ma, Baobin Shi, Liaqat Ali, Yong Bai, Pan Fang
Summary: This paper investigates the axial mechanical properties of a 6 x 36SW + 1WR wire rope with a diameter of 16mm using experimental, theoretical, and numerical methods. The results of the test are compared with the finite element simulation, demonstrating the accuracy and reliability of the model. Parametric studies are also conducted to explore the influence of factors such as pitch length and friction coefficient. The aim of this paper is to propose an accurate and efficient finite element model for mechanical analysis of wire ropes.
SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
(2023)
Article
Water Resources
Afzal Ahmed, Manousos Valyrakis, Abdul Razzaq Ghumman, Rashid Farooq, Ghufran Ahmed Pasha, Shahmir Janjua, Ali Raza
Summary: This study investigates the influence of upstream structures on the bulk drag coefficient of vegetation using experimental methods that have not been previously explored. An embankment model with and without a moat/depression was placed upstream of the vegetation. The results indicate that the presence of an upstream structure leads to a reduction in the bulk drag coefficient of vegetation, with a maximum decrease of 11% observed when only the embankment was present and a decrease of 20% observed when both the embankment and moat models were present. Regression models and artificial neural network (ANN) models were developed to predict the bulk drag coefficient based on various influencing factors. The ANN model with nine neurons in each hidden layer performed the best, achieving the highest accuracy and lowest error values compared to the regression models.
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Selmi Abdellatif, Khaled Mohamed Elhadi, Ali Raza, Muhammad Arshad, Ahmed Babeker Elhag
Summary: Concrete production and use contribute to environmental issues, and researchers are exploring innovative geopolymer concrete technology to tackle these challenges. Cracks in concrete structures can lead to reduced service life and structural failure, but self-healing geopolymer concrete offers a solution. This study evaluates the mechanical characteristics and self-healing abilities of SHG concrete in the construction industry.
JOURNAL OF BUILDING ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Mohamed Hechmi El Ouni, Selmi Abdellatif, Ali Raza, Hammad Haider, Nabil Ben Kahla
Summary: This experimental program investigates the mechanical, durability, and microstructural characteristics of glass fiber-reinforced geopolymeric recycled aggregate concrete (GRAC) developed using different types of waste water. The results show that using textile factory waste water in the development of GRAC leads to the highest tensile and compressive strength, while using fertilizer factory waste water results in the highest mass loss and chloride attack. The SEM and XRD analysis reveal that GRAC made with fertilizer factory and domestic sewage effluents have lower intensities of certain minerals, while the mixes with textile and service station waste water contain more C-S-H hydrate.
JOURNAL OF BUILDING ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Civil
Khaled Mohamed Elhadi, Selmi Abdellatif, Ali Raza, Muhammad Arshad
Summary: This study focuses on the structural performance of partially damaged E-waste aggregate concrete (EAC) compressive members reinforced with GFRP bars and spirals. The use of CFRP sheets for repairing the damaged samples showed good structural behavior. A theoretical model for predicting the axial load-carrying capacity of CFRP-repaired members is also proposed. Rating: 8/10
Article
Materials Science, Multidisciplinary
Qaiser Uz Zaman Khan, Muhammad Farhan, Ali Raza
Summary: The purpose of this study is to examine the damage behavior of flexural members under different loading conditions. A finite element model is proposed for the prediction of modal parameters, damage assessment and damage detection. The results show significant changes in modal properties when cracking occurs and when cracks start at the critical neutral axis.
MULTIDISCIPLINE MODELING IN MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
(2023)
Article
Environmental Sciences
Babar Ali, Marc Azab, Rawaz Kurda, Nabil Ben Kahla, Miniar Atig
Summary: This study aimed to analyze the mechanical and permeability characteristics and life cycle impact of high-strength concrete with varying amounts of nylon waste fiber and micro-silica. The results proved that nylon waste fiber was highly beneficial to the tensile and flexural strength of concrete. The addition of nylon waste fibers and micro-silica also reduced carbon emissions per unit strength of concrete.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH
(2023)
Article
Environmental Sciences
Syed Tafheem Abbas Gillani, Kui Hu, Babar Ali, Roshaan Malik, Ahmed Babeker Elhag, Khaled Mohamed Elhadi
Summary: The study investigates the potential impact of using recycled aggregates and recycled fibers on the performance and carbon emissions of high-performance concrete. Different percentages of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) and nylon waste fibers (NWFs) were tested in terms of compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, water absorption, and chloride ion penetration. The results show that a certain percentage of RCA and NWFs can improve the strength and durability of the concrete while minimizing carbon emissions.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Civil
Ali Raza, Abdellatif Selmi, Mohamed Hechmi El Ouni, Muhammad Arshad, Nabil Ben Kahla
Summary: The current research aims to determine the performance efficiency of the rapid repairing process of partially damaged GFRP-reinforced recycled aggregate geopolymer concrete (RGC) compressive members. Both experimental and numerical outcomes discovered that the proposed rapid repair method could considerably recover the peak axial capacity and axial shortening capacity of pre-damaged RGC compressive members.
ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Qi Jiang, Wei Liu, Shaopeng Wu, Xuanwen Gou
Summary: This study analyzes the erosion mechanisms of NaCl solution on asphalt concrete and finds that NaCl solution softens asphalt and promotes the intrusion of crystalline salt into it. Salt crystallization alters the surface roughness of aggregates, resulting in a decrease in skid resistance but an improvement in compressive strength. Additionally, the concentration of NaCl solution initially has no significant impact on the mechanical performance of asphalt concrete, but its domination gradually increases with the intensification of cyclic effects.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Lili Kan, Lan-qing Dai, Ning Kong, Bin Peng, Fei Wang
Summary: This paper investigates the effect of freezing and thawing cycles on the tensile behavior of cracked ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). The results show that long-term freezing and thawing action deteriorates the cracking strength, tensile strength, tensile strain, and strain energy of cracked UHPC. On the other hand, the action of water generally favors the development of tensile properties of UHPC. The crack distribution tends to be unsaturated under freezing and thawing environment, and the re-hydration reaction is hindered. The pore structure near the crack varies under different environments.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Xin Xiao, Jingwei Li, Qingke Meng, Xiangshan Hou, Yanhui Liu, Xujiang Wang, Wenlong Wang, Shengtao Lu, Yuzhong Li, Yanpeng Mao, Tong Li
Summary: Preparing gypsum-based self-leveling mortar (GSLM) using beta-hemihydrate gypsum and solid wastes-derived sulfoaluminate cement (WSAC) can improve the mechanical performance of the mortar, but phosphorus impurities can weaken the hydration speed and degree.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Sihang Bao, Junzhen Di, Yanrong Dong, Ziqing Gao, Qing Gu, Yuanfang Zhao, Hongyu Zhai
Summary: Tailings dam break and leakage accidents pose a threat to the safety of people in mining areas and cause severe environmental pollution. This study focuses on solidifying tailing sand using microbial induced calcite precipitation (MICP) to improve strength and fix heavy metals. The curing time of MICP bio-cemented tailings is found to significantly impact the strength of tailings, while its effect on heavy metal fixation is minimal. The optimized MICP curing time is 10 days, resulting in improved strength and cementation of tailings particles.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Ferhat Benmahiddine, Fares Bennai, Achraf Charaka, Ameur El Amine Hamami, Abdelkader Tahakourt, Rafik Belarbi
Summary: This paper studied the effects of hysteresis on the hygrothermal behavior at the building scale. Through laboratory validation and numerical simulations, it was found that hysteresis has a significant impact on the relative humidity and total heat fluxes in buildings, while it does not have a noticeable effect on temperature variations.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
You Gao, Wei He, Xiayang Zhang, De'an Sun, Pei Li
Summary: This study determined the boundary line between the swelling and compression deformation zone in lateritic clay through wetting tests, and proposed a simple bimodal SWRC model. It also found that the existing strength model underestimated the tested values in the medium to high suction range, therefore a segmented strength equation was introduced for enhanced predictions of the strength properties of lateritic clay.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Prabhath Ranjan Kumar Soda, Asheer Mogal, Kalyan Chakravarthy, Nikhil Thota, Nimish Bandaru, Sanjay Kumar Shukla, K. M. Mini
Summary: This study investigates the use of encapsulated bacteria to improve the self-healing ability of concrete. Through various tests, it is found that using 20% cement-coated alginate beads (CCAB) and 5% nanosilica (NS) can achieve optimal strength and healing. This research is significant for enhancing the durability of concrete.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Shizhe Wang, Haiping Wu, Wen Yang, Wei Wang, Zhibo Zhu, Kun Nie, Luoxin Wang, Hua Wang, Jing Wu
Summary: In this study, photothermal-heat storage concrete (PHSC) was developed with excellent photothermal conversion performance and heat storage capacity. By absorbing and storing solar energy during the day and releasing it at night, PHSC can effectively reduce energy consumption in buildings.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Robin Deb, Jialuo He, Geetika Mishra, Yaghoob (Amir) Farnam
Summary: Incorporation techniques of phase change materials in cementitious composites have a significant influence on thermal properties. This study investigated the thermal behavior of low-temperature PCM when subjected to varying temperature change rates and pore confinement inside the porous network of lightweight aggregates. The results showed that ramp rates affect the nucleation and crystallization growth process during the phase transition, and the pore structure of the aggregates affects the supercooling phenomenon and confinement pressure of the PCM.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Eduardo Ferreira, Payam Sotoudeh, Dagmar Svecova
Summary: This study investigates the fatigue behavior of concrete under different stress reversal conditions. The results indicate that stress reversal generally causes more severe damage and reduces the cycles to failure compared to tensile fatigue. Additionally, adding some level of compression contributes to the energy required for failure under stress reversal fatigue. Specimens with higher concentration of fractured aggregates achieve longer fatigue lives.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Mag Raj Gehlot, Sandeep Shrivastava
Summary: This study evaluates the compatibility relationship between plaster bonds and the substrate under an accelerated aging environment, and finds that incorporating an appropriate amount of granite cutting waste can improve the strength parameters and adhesion of the cement mortar.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Min Zhang, Qirui Luo, Mingke Deng, Shixing Zhao
Summary: This study investigated the bond behavior between carbon FRCM composites with added short fibers and concrete substrates. The effects of different factors were considered and 36 specimens were tested and discussed. The experimental results were analyzed in terms of failure mode, load-slip curve, and characteristic parameters, and the contribution of weft yarns was taken into account in the developed bondslip model.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Dengkai Liu, Hongniao Chen, Ray Kai Leung Su
Summary: The susceptibility of building stones to fire and high temperature was investigated in this study by examining their physical and mechanical properties. The results show that both compressive and tensile properties of stones are affected by temperature changes. The tensile strength is particularly sensitive to temperature changes, requiring special attention to the components subjected to tensile stress in stone buildings. Principal component analysis was used to predict the mechanical properties of stones, providing a new method for calculating the residual mechanical properties after high temperature or fire.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Joso Maria Raposo, Eduardo Cavaco, Luis Costa Neves, Eduardo Julio
Summary: This paper investigates the correlation between the friction coefficient and the surface roughness of concrete-to-concrete interfaces. Experimental tests were performed on specimens with different surface treatments, and the surface roughness parameters were analyzed and correlated with the shear strength and friction coefficient. The results showed that certain roughness parameters had a strong positive correlation with the friction coefficient, while others had little or no correlation. A novel combined roughness parameter with optimized correlation was proposed.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Chiara Riccardi, Massimo Losa
Summary: The interest in using bio materials in asphalt pavements is growing due to economic reasons and environmental benefits. This study aimed to review the use of bio extenders as additives in binders, with a focus on replacements greater than 20% of fossil binder. The properties of bio-extended binders were found to vary substantially depending on the biomass source and production process.
CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS
(2024)