Modulating brain activity and behaviour with tDCS: Rumours of its death have been greatly exaggerated

Transcranial electrical brain stimulation (tES) techniques have shown substantial promise in research and applied settings. However, over the last few years the technique has courted significant controversy, resulting in scepticism regarding its reported beneficial effects and future potential. In this opinion article, we examine the key points of criticism raised to date, including whether tES has any meaningful effect on the cortex, issues of replicability, and the variability in its efficacy across individuals. For each point, we assess the strength of the evidence for and against the argument and, where relevant, suggest how the field can improve. We conclude that while some of the highlighted shortcomings of research using electrical brain stimulation are justified, on balance the arguments against using such techniques in cognitive neuroscience are often overstated and elevate the risk of the field throwing the baby out with the bath water. (C) 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.