Control and consequences of Spartina spp. invasions with focus upon San Francisco Bay

Maritime Spartina spp. are powerful ecosystem engineers that accrete sediment, define shorelines, create habitat, and generate prodigious primary productivity both where they are native and where they have been introduced. Invasive Spartina spp. can compete vigorously with native species, diminish biota, change hydrology, and confound human uses of estuaries. Herbicides have been effective in controlling several Spartina spp. invasions. One of the most recent successes is a 15-year campaign that has virtually eliminated S. alterniflora from the large, century-old invasion in Willapa Bay, WA, USA. Hybridization between native and introduced Spartina spp. has created new species and hybrid swarms. In San Francisco Bay, CA, USA (SF Bay) a complicated situation continues to play out from the purposeful introduction of S. alterniflora, which hybridized with native California cordgrass, S. foliosa. The hybrids spread rapidly and led to a long list of environmental problems, which led to an herbicide program that was successful in greatly diminishing the hybrid and saving the open mud habitat of migratory shorebirds. However, it was belatedly realized that the non-migratory, endangered Ridgeway's rail uses the tall, dense hybrid Spartina as a surrogate for habitat that was lost during the twentieth century to urbanization and agricultural transformation of marshes around SF Bay. This realization has made difficult the simultaneous management of hybrid Spartina, wildlife conservation, and marsh restoration in San Francisco Bay. Restoration of native vegetation could satisfy the multiple goals of preserving open mud and conserving Ridgeway's rail.