Ecosystem-based management revisited: Updating the concepts for urban forests

The concept of ecosystem-based management (EBM) emerged from growing concern around adverse environmental impacts associated with resource management in the late twentieth century. Despite inconsistencies and ambiguities in both definition and implementation, the concept has seen considerable uptake in federal and provincial/state policies. More recently, municipal urban forest plans and programs have been making reference to EBM, yet there is almost no existing research on EBM in urban settings. In this paper, we discuss EBM in the context of urban forest ecosystems. Specifically, we ask three questions: (1) how might the concept of EBM remain relevant and be applied in densely-populated urban settings; (2) what structure and form might EBM take in the management of urban forest ecosystems; and (3) what are some examples of EBM applications in municipal urban forestry? The review is structured around 10 prominent themes from the EBM literature, which are re-negotiated for the urban context and, where necessary, are altered, omitted, or replaced with new themes. We also draw from four complementary cases of EBM in practice in Halifax, Toronto, and Edmonton. The resulting 12 themes of urban forest EBM include: Resilience, hierarchical context, social-ecological boundaries, data and information management, monitoring, adaptive management, interagency cooperation, partnerships and civic engagement, organizational change, social change, environmental justice, and values. Urban forests are important ecosystem service providers, but managers face a host of challenges, ranging from a consistent lack of resources to degraded urban sites. Continued dialogue on best approaches for integrating ecological principles into management is essential.