Renal, cardiovascular and metabolic effects of fetal programming

Disturbed fetal development has long-lasting effects on the offspring, specifically a higher risk of renal, cardiovascular and metabolic disease in adult life as postulated by Barkers hypothesis. Relevant to renal outcomes of the offspring are maternal factors such as pre-eclampsia, malnutrition, smoking, drugs etc. The main renal abnormalities in the offspring include reduced nephron number and higher risk of low glomerular filtration rate, albuminuria, hypertension and worse outcome of primary kidney disease. Relevant to renal outcomes is also the predisposition to obesity and type 2 diabetes.