The occurrence and phylogenetic implications of wing interference patterns in Cynipoidea (Insecta : Hymenoptera)

Wing interference patterns (WIPs) are a potentially rich source of taxonomic data. We surveyed a broad range of Cynipoidea (Hymenoptera) for the presence of these patterns. Further, we used phylogeny to investigate the evolutionary patterns of WIPs throughout the superfamily. We also documented that WIPs occur across nearly all species sampled, in both the hindwing and forewing; in many instances, the forewing WIP is carried over to the hindwing. Only Austrocynips mirabilis Riek lacked WIPs. Among species that possess WIPs, we were able to recognise four distinct categories: radiform (radiating), striatiform (longitudinally striate), campiform (continuous field) and galactiform (amorphous mixture of colours). Wing interference patterns are not found in infuscate wings or areas of infuscation on otherwise hyaline wings, and are reduced on large wings. Within Figitidae, WIPs are more phylogenetically conservative, especially at the tribal level: within Cynipidae the phylogenetic conservatism of WIPs is somewhat less clear, though all Synergini sampled had a very consistent WIPs. For certain genera, such as Ganaspidium and Andricus, WIPs may prove useful for species-level discrimination.