A parametric study of Io's thermophysical surface properties and subsequent numerical atmospheric simulations based on the best fit parameters

Io's sublimation atmosphere is inextricably linked to the SO2 surface frost temperature distribution which is poorly constrained by observations. We constrain Io's surface thermal distribution by a parametric study of its thermophysical properties in an attempt to better model the morphology of Io's sublimation atmosphere. Io's surface thermal distribution is represented by three thermal units: sulfur dioxide (SO2) frosts/ices, non-frosts (probably sulfur allotropes and/or pyroclastic dusts), and hot spots. The hot spots included in our thermal model are static high temperature surfaces with areas and temperatures based on Keck infrared observations. Elsewhere, over frosts and non-frosts, our thermal model solves the one-dimensional heat conduction equation in depth into Io's surface and includes the effects of eclipse by Jupiter, radiation from Jupiter, and latent heat of sublimation and condensation. The best fit parameters for the SO2 frost and non-frost units are found by using a least-squares method and fitting to observations of the Hubble Space Telescope's Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (HST STIS) mid- to near-UV reflectance spectra and Galileo PPR brightness temperature. The thermophysical parameters are the frost Bond albedo, alpha(F), and thermal inertia, Gamma(F), as well as the non-frost surface Bond albedo, alpha(NF), and thermal inertia, Gamma(NF). The best fit parameters are found to be alpha(F) approximate to 0.55 +/- 0.02 and Gamma(F) approximate to 200 +/- 50 J m(-2) K-1 s(-1/2) for the SO2 frost surface and alpha(NF) approximate to 0.49 +/- 0.02 and Gamma(NF) 20 +/- 10 J m(-2) K-1 s(-1/2) for the non-frost surface. These surface thermophysical parameters are then used as boundary conditions in global atmospheric simulations of Io's sublimation-driven atmosphere using the direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method. These simulations are unsteady, three-dimensional, parallelized across 360 processors, and include the following physical effects: inhomogeneous surface frosts, plasma heating, and a temperature-dependent residence time on the non-frost surface. The DSMC simulations show that the sub-jovian hemisphere is significantly affected by the daily solar eclipse. The simulated SO2 surface frost temperature is found to drop only similar to 5 K during eclipse due to the high thermal inertia of SO2 surface frosts but the SO2 gas column density falls by a factor of 20 compared to the pre-eclipse column due to the exponential dependence of the SO2 vapor pressure on the SO2 surface frost temperature. Supersonic winds exist prior to eclipse but become subsonic during eclipse because the collapse of the atmosphere significantly decreases the day-to-night pressure gradient that drives the winds. Prior to eclipse, the supersonic winds condense on and near the cold nightside and form a highly non-equilibrium oblique shock near the dawn terminator. In eclipse, no shock exists since the gas is subsonic and the shock only reestablishes itself an hour or more after egress from eclipse. Furthermore, the excess gas that condenses on the non-frost surface during eclipse leads to an enhancement of the atmosphere near dawn. The dawn atmospheric enhancement drives winds that oppose those that are driven away from the peak pressure region above the warmest area of the SO2 frost surface. These opposing winds meet and are collisional enough to form stagnation point flow. The simulations are compared to Lyman-alpha observations in an attempt to explain the asymmetry between the dayside atmospheres of the anti-jovian and sub-jovian hemispheres. Lyman-alpha observations indicate that the anti-jovian hemisphere has higher column densities than the sub-jovian hemisphere and also has a larger latitudinal extent. A composite average dayside atmosphere is formed from a collisionless simulation of to's atmosphere throughout an entire orbit. This composite average dayside atmosphere without the effect of global winds indicates that the sub-jovian hemisphere has lower average column densities than the anti-jovian hemisphere (with the strongest effect at the sub-jovian point) due primarily to the diurnally averaged effect of eclipse. This is in qualitative agreement with the sub-jovian/anti-jovian asymmetry in the Lyman-alpha observations which were alternatively explained by the bias of volcanic centers on the anti-jovian hemisphere. Lastly, the column densities in the simulated average dayside atmosphere agree with those inferred from Lyman-alpha observations despite the thermophysical parameters being constrained by mid- to near UV observations which show much higher instantaneous SO2 gas column densities. This may resolve the apparent discrepancy between the lower average dayside column densities observed in the Lyman-a and the higher instantaneous column densities observed in the mid- to near UV. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.