Investigation of the growth and local stoichiometric point group symmetry of titania nanotubes during potentiostatic anodization of titanium in phosphate electrolytes

Potentiostatic anodization of commercially pure, 50 mu m-thick titanium (Ti) foil was performed in aqueous, phosphate electrolytes at increasing experimental timeframes at a fixed applied potential for the synthesis of titania nanotube arrays (TNAs). High resolution scanning electron microscopy images, combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy and x-ray diffraction spectra reveal that anodization of the Ti foil in a 1 M NaF+0.5 M H3PO4 electrolyte for 4 h yields a titanate surface with pore diameters ranging between 100 and 500 nm. The presence of rods on the Ti foil surface with lengths exceeding 20 mu m and containing high concentrations of phosphor on the exterior was also detected at these conditions, along with micro-sized coral reef-like titanate balls. We propose that the formation of these structures play a major role during the anodization process and impedes nanotube growth during the anodization process. High spatially resolved scanning transmission electron microscopy-electron energy loss spectroscopy (STEM-EELS) performed along the length of a single anodized TiO2 nanotube reveals a gradual evolution of the nanotube crystallinity from a rutile-rich bottom to a predominantly anatase TiO2 structure along its length. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.