Topographic reflection of the Socompa debris avalanche, Chile

One of the most remarkable features of the exceptionally well preserved 26 km(3) Socompa debris avalanche deposit is the evidence for topographically driven secondary flow. The avalanche formed by sector collapse of Socompa stratovolcano and spread 40 km across a pre-existing basin, forming a sheet of similar to 50 m average thickness. As the avalanche impinged on the western and northern margins of the basin, it was reflected back, forming a secondary flow that continued to travel 15 km down a gentle slope at an oblique angle to the primary flow, the front of the return wave being preserved frozen on the surface of the deposit as a prominent escarpment. Satellite images, aerial photos, digital elevation models and field observations were used to reconstruct the sequence of events during avalanche emplacement, and in particular during secondary flow. The avalanche sheet was divided into distinct terrane groups, each believed to have experienced a particular strain history during emplacement. Evidence for avalanche reflection includes clearly recognizable secondary slide masses, sub-parallel sets of curvilinear shear zones, headwall scarps separating the (primary) levee from the secondary terranes, extensional jigsaw breakup of surface lithologies during return flow, and cross cutting, or deflection, of primary flow fabrics by secondary terranes. Reflection off the basin margin took place in an essentially continuous manner, most major return motions being simultaneous with, or shortly following, primary flow. The secondary flow occurred as a wave that swept obliquely across the primary avalanche direction, remobilizing the primary material, which was first compressed, then stretched, as it passed over and rearward of the wave front. As return flow occurred, surface lithologies were rifted in a brittle manner, and the slabs were sheared pervasively as they glided and rotated back into the basin; some sank into the more fluidal interior of the avalanche, which drained out into a prominent distal lobe. Extension by factors of up to 1.8 took place during return flow. Secondary flow took place on slopes of only a few degrees, and the distal lobe flowed 8 km on a slope of similar to 1 degrees. Overall the avalanche is inferred to have slid into place as a fast-moving sheet of fragmental rock debris, with a leading edge and crust with near-normal friction and an almost frictionless, fluidal interior and base. The avalanche emplacement history deduced from field evidence is consistent with the results of a previously published numerical model of the Socompa avalanche.