The unequal impacts of time, cost and transfer accessibility on cities, classes and races

Inequalities are structured and reproduced in multiple dimensions and scales. From countries to neighborhoods, socio-spatial structure interacts with urban and public transportation development and results in uneven access to opportunities in manifold aspects. By looking at cities in distinct positions of the globalized world, Sa similar to o Paulo, New York City and London, we demonstrate that travel times, costs and transfers have different impacts on job accessibility of social classes and ethnic-racial groups living in different areas of cities in different parts of the world. At the global scale, while the monetary cost of travel relative to income has a small impact on accessibility in central and developed countries, it substantially diminishes the access to opportunities of a large share of the population in peripheral and developing countries. Also, social class has a strong influence on accessibility levels among whites, and upper classes are far better than middle and lower classes. Among blacks, however, historical trajectories of development have a major role in explaining accessibility. The analysis of socio-spatial inequalities in multiple dimensions and scales highlights the centrality of the affordability dimension in transport studies and also its importance to the evaluation and formulation of contextualized policies, particularly in the peripheral world.

Automated summary

Inequalities in access to opportunities are shaped by socio-spatial structures and urban development, particularly in central and peripheral countries. While travel costs relative to income have a smaller impact on job accessibility in developed countries, they significantly limit opportunities in peripheral and developing countries. Additionally, social class and historical development trajectories play major roles in determining accessibility levels for different racial and ethnic groups.