Spike Glycoprotein and Host Cell Determinants of SARS-CoV-2 Entry and Cytopathic Effects

SARS-CoV-2, a betacoronavirus, is the cause of the COVID-19 pandemic. The SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) glycoprotein trimer mediates virus entry into host cells and cytopathic effects (syncytium formation). We studied the contribution of several S glycoprotein features to these functions, focusing on those that differ among related coronaviruses. Acquisition of the furin cleavage site by the SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein decreased virus stability and infectivity but greatly enhanced syncytium-forming ability. Notably, the D614G change found in globally predominant SARS-CoV-2 strains increased infectivity, modestly enhanced responsiveness to the ACE2 receptor and susceptibility to neutralizing sera, and tightened association of the S1 subunit with the trimer. Apparently, these two features of the SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein, the furin cleavage site and D614G, have evolved to balance virus infectivity, stability, cytopathicity and antibody vulnerability. Although the endodomain (cytoplasmic tail) of the S2 subunit was not absolutely required for virus entry or syncytium formation, alteration of palmitoylated cysteine residues in the cytoplasmic tail decreased the efficiency of these processes. Since proteolytic cleavage contributes to the activation of the SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein, we evaluated the ability of protease inhibitors to suppress S glycoprotein function. Matrix metalloprotease inhibitors suppressed S-mediated cell-cell fusion but not virus entry. Synergy between inhibitors of matrix metalloproteases and TMPRSS2 suggests that both host proteases can activate the S glycoprotein during the process of syncytium formation. These results provide insights into SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein-host cell interactions that likely contribute to the transmission and pathogenicity of this pandemic agent. IMPORTANCE The development of an effective and durable SARS-CoV-2 vaccine is essential for combating the growing COVID-19 pandemic. The SARS-CoV-2 spike (5) glycoprotein is the main target of neutralizing antibodies elicited during virus infection or following vaccination. Knowledge of the spike glycoprotein evolution, function, and interactions with host factors will help researchers to develop effective vaccine immunogens and treatments. Here, we identify key features of the spike glycoprotein, including the furin cleavage site and the D614G natural mutation, that modulate viral cytopathic effects, infectivity, and sensitivity to inhibition. We also identify two inhibitors of host metalloproteases that block S-mediated cell-cell fusion, a process that contributes to the destruction of the virus-infected cell.

Automated summary

The SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein has evolved features such as the furin cleavage site and D614G mutation to balance virus infectivity, stability, cytopathicity, and antibody vulnerability, while the endodomain of the S2 subunit is not essential for virus entry or syncytium formation. Metalloprotease inhibitors can suppress S-mediated cell-cell fusion, but not virus entry, suggesting a role for host proteases in activating the S glycoprotein during syncytium formation. This understanding of SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein interactions with host cells provides insights into virus transmission and pathogenicity.