Mud masonry houses in Nepal: A detailed study based on entire reconstruction scenario in 31 earthquake-affected districts

The 7.8M(w) 2015 Gorkha earthquake and its aftershocks caused a massive loss of human-lives and structures. But even after 5 years of this devastating earthquake, the inability of the Government of Nepal (GoN) to complete the reconstruction works in 31 earthquake-affected regions has emerged several queries about its present status, achievements, and failures with possible solutions. So, realizing the lack of detailed studies done in this sector and also the immediate need for visualizing the entire reconstruction scenario to contribute timely and quality reconstruction, this paper is written. A detailed 7 years study (since early 2012) in the form of the reconnaissance survey (visiting earthquake-affected regions, both before and after the Gorkha earthquake), active group discussions and questionnaires with engineers, local people, and the masons were conducted. Officially working in a post-disaster damage assessment and reconstruction project under GoN was a plus point for this study to further obtain the detailed information. The overall findings were focused on entire construction practices (including common construction and structural deficiencies) adopted in new mud masonry houses and their comparison with old and finally relate this information to express the issues and challenges faced in reconstruction phases. Closer study shows that although the majority (> 80%) of newly constructed mud masonry houses were comparatively better than old, but the regional variation in reconstruction rate and overall delay in reconstruction (> 30% houses remaining) and retrofitting activities (> 99% remaining) has generated further risk in people's life. Around 15%-20% earthquake-victim has repaired their old cracked houses or construct new homes without any seismic consideration. Along with this, the current housing design (approximate to 10% having single-room and > 70% smaller double-rooms with low height attic space) has clearly shown the inability to fulfil the space requirements of local people. Presenting the obtained findings through the data and further verifying each section using good quality pictures as evidence has been the highlighting part of this paper and also played a vital role in establishing clarity for readers. Based on the overall reconstruction scenario (especially focused on deficiencies in mud masonry houses), this paper recommends possible things to be targeted for its better upliftment.