Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yingjie Song, Xin Wan, Yucong Miao, Jinze Li, Zhen Ren, Bowen Jin, Hua Zhou, Zhenhua Li, Mingfei Shao
Summary: Electrochemical hydrogen production coupled with the upgrading of organic substances has the potential to harvest green energy and generate valuable products. The development of an amorphous layered double hydroxide with high oxygen activity enables efficient glycerol oxidation and formic acid production. Furthermore, the construction of an alkaline-acid hybrid flow cell allows for constant hydrogen production and formic acid production at a low cell voltage, with high durability. Additionally, the use of amorphous LDH electrocatalysts enables the transformation of waste oil into valuable products (potassium diformate and biodiesel) and hydrogen fuels.
APPLIED CATALYSIS B-ENVIRONMENTAL
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
D. H. D. Rocha, T. A. Z. de Souza, C. J. R. Coronado, J. L. Silveira, R. J. Silva
Summary: The study found that by recycling the residual gas with high concentration of water and CO2, the glycerol reforming capacity can be maximized while increasing the system's overall exergy efficiency. This process was evaluated in three different scenarios regarding reform gas processing from technical and environmental perspectives.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HYDROGEN ENERGY
(2021)
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
M. Salome Macedo, M. A. Soria, Luis M. Madeira
Summary: In recent years, glycerol steam reforming (GSR) has been a focus of interest for the production of green hydrogen, with researchers focusing on GSR thermodynamics, catalyst development, reaction kinetics and mechanisms, reactor models, and innovative reactor configurations.
RENEWABLE & SUSTAINABLE ENERGY REVIEWS
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Kyriaki Polychronopoulou, Aasif A. Dabbawala, Muhammad Sajjad, Nirpendra Singh, Dalaver H. Anjum, Mark A. Baker, Nikolaos D. Charisiou, Maria A. Goula
Summary: This study fabricated Ce-La-xCu-O catalysts through different microwave methods and found that the synthesis methods significantly influence the incorporation of Cu into the lattice structure. Enhanced microwave catalysts showed better performance in glycerol steam reforming, with higher conversion rates and hydrogen yield than conventional microwave catalysts.
APPLIED SURFACE SCIENCE
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Applied
Morgana Rosset, Liliana Amaral Feris, Oscar W. Perez-Lopez
Summary: Ni-M-Al (M = K, Na, Li) LDH-derived catalysts were evaluated for biogas dry reforming, showing differences in acidity and sintering resistance among the catalysts. The NiLi catalyst exhibited higher resistance to sintering and deactivation mainly due to carbon deposition, while NiK and NiNa catalysts were mainly deactivated by sintering during reactions. Different carbon species were produced by the catalysts depending on the reaction conditions.
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Somia Djelloul Bencherif, Juan Jesus Gallardo, Ivan Carrillo-Berdugo, Abdellah Bahmani, Javier Navas
Summary: A layered double hydroxide material based on Zn and Cr was developed and transformed into the corresponding oxide by heat treatment, showing good photocatalytic activity in photodegradation tests. The catalyst demonstrated 100% degradation in optimized conditions and maintained good performance after five photodegradation cycles.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Surendar Moogi, Lingaiah Nakka, S. Sai Prasad Potharaju, Ashfaq Ahmed, Abid Farooq, Sang-Chul Jung, Gwang Hoon Rhee, Young-Kwon Park
Summary: Different cobalt-based mixed oxide catalysts were synthesized and tested for hydrogen production from glycerol steam reforming, with the 5Cu20CM catalyst showing the best performance attributed to its small particle size, high dispersion, and large surface area.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HYDROGEN ENERGY
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Felipe Pinheiro Falcao Dias, Igor Teles Fernandes, Andre Valente Bueno, Paulo Alexandre Costa Rocha, Mona Lisa Moura de Oliveira
Summary: A detailed exergy analysis was conducted for the steam reforming process of glycerol, revealing a compromise between exergy destruction and losses associated with tar and char outputs. The optimal glycerol feed concentrations were found to be 50% and 70%, resulting in a plateau of about 74% exergy efficiency and 24 MJ/kg dry syngas exergy content in the reactor temperature range of 650 to 800 degrees C.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HYDROGEN ENERGY
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Eliane Dahdah, Jane Estephane, Cedric Gennequin, Bilal El Khoury, Antoine Aboukais, Edmond Abi-Aad, Samer Aouad
Summary: The physico-chemical properties of Ni, Ru, Ru-Ni monoclinic ZrO2 catalysts were studied and their catalytic activities in the glycerol steam reforming reaction were compared. Different characterization techniques were used to analyze the catalysts. The results showed that the combination of Ru and Ni on zirconia led to improved catalytic performance and stability.
SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY
(2023)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Zulfiqar Ali Bhatti, Sania Bhatti, Sikandar Ali Abbasi, Abdul Sattar Jatoi, Abdul Qadeer Laghari, Ghulamullah Maitlo
Summary: This study investigates the impact of steam glycerol reformation on hydrogen production through thermodynamic analysis. The results show that changing temperature, pressure, and water/glycerol ratio can improve hydrogen production.
BIOMASS CONVERSION AND BIOREFINERY
(2023)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Shuliu Yang, Haoran Sun, Shiliang Yang, Jianhang Hu, Hua Wang
Summary: This study numerically investigates the sorption-enhanced glycerol steam reforming process using the multiphase particle-in-cell model within the Eulerian-Lagrangian framework. The particle-scale evaluations and gas thermal properties are comprehensively presented. The results reveal the preferential distribution of CaO particles in the bottom zone of the bed due to size and density-induced segregation. The findings have profound significance for understanding complex gas-solid reacting flow and optimizing the sorption-enhanced hydrogen production system.
Article
Energy & Fuels
Yunzhu Wang, Yi Zhao, Songshan Zhu, Jichang Lu, Sufang He, Huihui Lu, Di Song, Yongming Luo
Summary: Shape-specific CeO2 nanocrystals (spheres, rods, cubes and nanoparticles) were synthesized and used as support for Ni/CeO2 catalysts for glycerol steam reforming. The morphology of the CeO2 support affected the metal-support interaction and the specific surface area of nickel and oxygen vacancy concentration, thereby influencing the catalytic performance. Ni/CeO2-S with mainly exposed (111) type planes showed the strongest metal-support interaction, resulting in high glycerol conversion and hydrogen production. In contrast, Ni/CeO2-NR and Ni/CeO2-NC with lower exposure areas and oxygen vacancy concentrations showed poorer catalytic activity. The study of the Ni-CeO2 interaction can provide valuable insights for designing efficient GSR catalysts.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Kang Gao, Ommolbanin Alizadeh Sahraei, Maria C. Iliuta
Summary: The physicochemical properties of low-efficiency coal fly ash were significantly improved through simple acid/alkali treatments, enhancing the catalytic activity for glycerol steam reforming. Alkali-LPD proved more effective than acid-LPD in improving the surface area and elemental distribution of the fly ash.
APPLIED CATALYSIS B-ENVIRONMENTAL
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
M. Salome Macedo, Elka Kraleva, Heike Ehrich, M. A. Soria, Luis M. Madeira
Summary: A comparative study of Co-based catalysts supported on La2O3, AlZnOx and AlLaOx for glycerol steam reforming was conducted. The results showed that CoAlLaOx exhibited superior carbon resistance, while NiAlLaOx demonstrated good catalytic stability.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HYDROGEN ENERGY
(2022)
Article
Materials Science, Composites
Lipeng Diao, Qi Gao, Ningce Zhang, Qinglin Dai, Xiaodong Zhang, Daohao Li, Dongjiang Yang, Xilin She
Summary: Two-dimensional calcium aluminum layered double hydroxides (Ca/Al-LDHs) are introduced as solid lubricants in polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) molding to enhance its anti-wear performance. The addition of 8% Ca/Al-LDHs increases the wearable performance of LDH-PTFE-8% by 3.4 times, while maintaining excellent mechanical properties. The high unctuosity of Ca/Al-LDHs and the hydrogen-bonding interaction with -OH anions in PTFE result in the formation of a protective transfer film to enhance the wear resistance of LDH-PTFE molding.
COMPOSITES COMMUNICATIONS
(2023)
Article
Engineering, Chemical
Zhibin Deng, Xing Ge, Wenting Zhang, Shizhong Luo, Jun Shen, Fangli Jing, Wei Chu
Summary: SBA-15 with varied pore size from 4 to 8 nm were synthesized and used to load CrOx active phase, leading to catalysts with well dispersed metal species. The pore size had profound effects on reducibility, surface composition and basicity, where Cr6+ species played a key role in activating C-H bonds of alkanes and basicity was important for activating C-O bonds of CO2. The best performance was achieved over the sample with a pore diameter of 7 nm in oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane in the presence of CO2.
CHINESE JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
(2021)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Xuxu Zhai, Fangli Jing, Luming Li, Xia Jiang, Junjun Zhang, Jun Ma, Wei Chu
Summary: A series of layered manganese oxides catalysts were successfully prepared by self-driving combustion (SDC) technology using potassium permanganate and citric acid as precursors. Noble metals were employed to modulate the obtained manganese oxide matrix, resulting in new nanocatalysts with improved catalytic performance, with 0.5Pt-SDC-13 exhibiting the highest activity.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Hui Kang, Jiajie Wang, Jian Zheng, Wei Chu, Changjin Tang, Ji Jiawei, Rui Ren, Mengxia Wu, Fangli Jing
Summary: Cryptomelane-type Ni-doped MnOx catalysts prepared by solvent-free doping method exhibit excellent performances in different temperature zones, with appropriate Ni loading effectively tuning the surface properties of the catalyst to ensure NH3 activation ability and enhance SCR activity.
MOLECULAR CATALYSIS
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Peng Xu, Jian Zheng, Fangli Jing, Wei Chu
Summary: The study showed that different TiO2 precursors significantly affect the catalytic activity of FeCe-TiO2 catalysts in SCR of NO with ammonia, with the sample synthesized with titanyl sulfate as TiO2 resource exhibiting the highest activity, achieving 90% NO conversion in a wide temperature range. This enhancement in activity was attributed to improved catalyst redox ability and increased surface acidity as concluded from various characterizations and designed experiments.
MOLECULAR CATALYSIS
(2021)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yingchun Li, Linyi Li, Wenjing Sun, Congmei Chen, Shizhong Luo, Jun Shen, Chengfa Jiang, Fangli Jing
Summary: This paper discusses the application of CeO2 and SiO2-coated CeO2 catalysts in the oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane for ethylene production, showing that the presence of a SiO2 layer enhances ethylene selectivity and facilitates ethylene desorption.
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Lei Cao, Yi Qiu, Shizhong Luo, Chengfa Jiang, Fangli Jing
Summary: In this study, mesoporous Sn-SBA-15 materials with varied pore size were synthesized by changing the hydrothermal temperature, and PtSn oxides were dispersed within them using an impregnation method. The results showed that the pore size had significant effects on the properties and catalytic performance of the catalyst, with the optimal pore size being 8 nm.
MOLECULAR CATALYSIS
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Linyi Li, Renjun Tan, Shizhong Luo, Chengfa Jiang, Fangli Jing
Summary: In this study, Fe, Ni, Mn, and Ti were directly doped into the CeO2 lattice by hydrothermal method to form solid solution catalysts. Various techniques were used to study the structural evolution and properties of the catalysts. It was found that the incorporation of metal elements distorted the lattice and resulted in differences in redox, oxygen activity, basicity, and surface properties. The catalytic conversion of ethane with CO2 showed different features depending on the doped metal atoms. The number and activity of lattice oxygen played a dominant role in influencing the activity and selectivity. The solid solution catalysts also exhibited good coke resistance.
APPLIED CATALYSIS A-GENERAL
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Yinghao Wang, Youwei Dou, Hao Zhang, Bang Gu, Claudio Oldani, Qinghu Tang, Fangli Jing, Qiue Cao, Wenhao Fang
Summary: This work presents a cost-effective and environmentally friendly method for directly converting fructose to levulinic acid. A commercial perfluorosulfonic acid resin, Aquivion (R) P98, in pellet form was used as a water-tolerant and reusable solid acid catalyst. The study systematically investigated the effects of catalyst dosage, reaction temperature, and reaction time on the dehydration of fructose. The results demonstrated that fructose was dehydrated to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural as an intermediate and subsequently hydrolyzed to produce levulinic acid and formic acid using the Aquivion (R) P98 catalyst. The optimized reaction conditions resulted in a 96% yield of levulinic acid at 100% conversion of fructose in water at 120 degrees C after 12 hours. The catalytic productivity of levulinic acid reached an outstanding value of 3.2 mol mol(H+)(-1), which is the highest reported value to date. The Aquivion (R) P98 catalyst could be easily regenerated through ion-exchange, and it maintained stable levulinic acid yield after six consecutive reuses. Controlled experiments confirmed that the acidic products, specifically formic acid and levulinic acid, acted as homogeneous catalysts to enhance the dehydration of fructose and the subsequent hydrolysis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural.
MOLECULAR CATALYSIS
(2022)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Chen Liu, Baofang Liang, Fangli Jing, Shizhong Luo
Summary: Ni/CeO2 catalysts with different Ni loadings were prepared and characterized to investigate their effects on catalytic performance. The addition of Ni reduced the activation energy and improved the acidity, resulting in enhanced catalytic efficiency. Among the bimetallic catalysts, Ni/CeO2 showed the best performance and coke resistance.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Hui Zhang, Jin He, Bowen Lei, Jie Wen, Fangli Jing, Arshid Mahmood Ali
Summary: The bimetallic Pt-Ni nano-catalysts with different platinum to nickel mass ratios supported on carbon nanotubes were synthesized and their catalytic performance was studied. The results showed that the optimal Pt : Ni ratio was 1:2, which enhanced the hydrogen generation from ammonia borane hydrolysis. The presence of carbon nanotubes improved the dispersion and stability of the Pt-Ni nanoparticles, leading to increased catalytic activity.
RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY A
(2022)
Article
Engineering, Chemical
Rong Qian, Shi-zhong Luo, Fangli Jing, Wenhao Fang
Summary: A modified impregnation technique was used to prepare carbon nanotube-confined InPt-based catalysts with varying In content. The addition of indium improved the catalytic activity and selectivity of the catalyst, while also reducing the activation energy.
INDUSTRIAL & ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY RESEARCH
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Lei Cao, Rong Qian, Yuanyuan Zhang, Shizhong Luo, Chengfa Jiang, Fangli Jing
Summary: A series of Pt-based catalysts were prepared using a chelating-agent-assisted impregnation method and characterized by various techniques to investigate the influence of organic acids on their properties. The results showed that the use of organic acids led to higher dispersion of Pt particles and modified the interaction between Pt sites and the support. The catalytic dehydrogenation of propane revealed that the citric acid-assisted catalyst exhibited the optimal performance.
JOURNAL OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF SOLIDS
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Peng Lin, Rong Shang, Qizhao Zhang, Bang Gu, Qinghu Tang, Fangli Jing, Qiue Cao, Wenhao Fang
Summary: Advanced synthesis of highly-dispersed Au nanoparticles is crucial for catalysis and green chemistry. In this study, a facile one-pot coordination-calcination method was developed to prepare uniform Au nanoparticles loaded on ZnO. The resulting Au/ZnO-MZ catalyst exhibited efficient and stable performance for the sustainable synthesis of vanillin. The findings of this study may inspire new preparation methods and applications for Au heterogeneous catalysts.
CATALYSIS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
(2022)
Article
Engineering, Environmental
Baofang Liang, Chen Liu, Fangli Jing, Shizhong Luo
Summary: The bimetallic CeNi/SiO2 catalysts were prepared and characterized. The addition of ceria helped disperse Ni nanoparticles and generate more oxygen vacancies, resulting in more active sites. The bimetallic catalysts also had medium acidic sites, which promoted the formation of desired products and improved coke resistance.
JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
(2022)
Article
Chemistry, Physical
Weixiao Sun, Peng Lin, Qinghu Tang, Fangli Jing, Qiue Cao, Wenhao Fang
Summary: The study introduced a bimetallic catalyst AgPd/ZrO2 for the oxidation of vanillyl alcohol to vanillin, a challenging transformation in heterogeneous catalysis. By modulating the crystalline structure and textural properties of ZrO2 using different zirconium precursors, the most suitable support was identified. The addition of an Ag promoter improved the performance of the catalyst, leading to enhanced conversion and selectivity, as well as superior stability during recycling uses.
CATALYSIS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
(2021)
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Cameron Bracken, Nathalie Voisin, Casey D. Burleyson, Allison M. Campbell, Z. Jason Hou, Daniel Broman
Summary: This study presents a methodology and dataset for examining compound wind and solar energy droughts, as well as the first standardized benchmark of energy droughts across the Continental United States (CONUS) for a 2020 infrastructure. The results show that compound wind and solar droughts have distinct spatial and temporal patterns across the CONUS, and the characteristics of energy droughts are regional. The study also finds that compound high load events occur more often during compound wind and solar droughts than expected.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Ning Zhang, Yanghao Yu, Jiawei Wu, Ershun Du, Shuming Zhang, Jinyu Xiao
Summary: This paper provides insights into the optimal configuration of CSP plants with different penetrations of wind power by proposing an unconstrained optimization model. The results suggest that large solar multiples and TES are preferred in order to maximize profit, especially when combined with high penetrations of wind and photovoltaic plants. Additionally, the study demonstrates the economy and feasibility of installing electric heaters (EH) in CSP plants, which show a linear correlation with the penetration of variable energy resources.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
M. Szubel, K. Papis-Fraczek, S. Podlasek
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
J. Silva, J. C. Goncalves, C. Rocha, J. Vilaca, L. M. Madeira
Summary: This study investigated the methanation of CO2 in biogas and compared two different methanation reactors. The results showed that the cooled reactor without CO2 separation achieved a CO2 conversion rate of 91.8%, while the adiabatic reactors achieved conversion rates of 59.6% and 67.2%, resulting in an overall conversion rate of 93.0%. Economic analysis revealed negative net present worth values, indicating the need for government monetary incentives.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Yang Liu, Yonglan Xi, Xiaomei Ye, Yingpeng Zhang, Chengcheng Wang, Zhaoyan Jia, Chunhui Cao, Ting Han, Jing Du, Xiangping Kong, Zhongbing Chen
Summary: This study investigated the effect of using nanofiber membrane composites containing Prussian blue-like compound nanoparticles (PNPs) to relieve ammonia nitrogen inhibition of rural organic household waste during high-solid anaerobic digestion and increase methane production. The results showed that adding NMCs with 15% PNPs can lower the concentrations of volatile fatty acids and ammonia nitrogen, and increase methane yield.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Zhong Ge, Xiaodong Wang, Jian Li, Jian Xu, Jianbin Xie, Zhiyong Xie, Ruiqu Ma
Summary: This study evaluates the thermodynamic, exergy, and economic performance of a double-stage organic flash cycle (DOFC) using ten eco-friendly hydrofluoroolefins. The influences of key parameters on performance are analyzed, and the advantages of DOFC over single-stage type are quantified.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Nicolas Kirchner-Bossi, Fernando Porte-Agel
Summary: This study investigates the optimization of power density in wind farms and its sensitivity to the available area size. A novel genetic algorithm (PDGA) is introduced to optimize power density and turbine layout. The results show that the PDGA-driven solutions significantly reduce the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) compared to the default layout, and exhibit a convex relationship between area and LCOE or power density.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Chunxiao Zhang, Dongdong Li, Lin Wang, Qingpo Yang, Yutao Guo, Wei Zhang, Chao Shen, Jihong Pu
Summary: In this study, a novel reversible liquid-filled energy-saving window that effectively regulates indoor solar radiation heat gain is proposed. Experimental results show that this window can effectively reduce indoor temperature during both summer and winter seasons, while having minimal impact on indoor illuminance.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Alessandro L. Aguiar, Martinho Marta-Almeida, Mauro Cirano, Janini Pereira, Leticia Cotrim da Cunha
Summary: This study analyzed the Brazilian Equatorial Shelf using a high-resolution ocean model and found significant tidal variations in the area. Several hypothetical barrages were proposed with higher annual power generation than existing barrages. The study also evaluated the installation effort of these barrages.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Francesco Superchi, Nathan Giovannini, Antonis Moustakis, George Pechlivanoglou, Alessandro Bianchini
Summary: This study focuses on the optimization of a hybrid power station on the Tilos island in Greece, aiming to increase energy export and revenue by optimizing energy fluxes. Different scenarios are proposed to examine the impact of different agreements with the grid operator on the optimal solution.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Peimaneh Shirazi, Amirmohammad Behzadi, Pouria Ahmadi, Sasan Sadrizadeh
Summary: This research presents two novel energy production/storage/usage systems to reduce energy consumption and environmental effects in buildings. A biomass-fired model and a solar-driven system integrated with photovoltaic thermal (PVT) panels and a heat pump were designed and assessed. The results indicate that the solar-based system has an acceptable energy cost and the PVT-based system with a heat pump is environmentally superior. The biomass-fired system shows excellent efficiency.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Zihao Qi, Yingling Cai, Yunxiang Cui
Summary: This study aims to investigate the operational characteristics of the solar-ground source heat pump system (SGSHPS) in Shanghai under different operation modes. It concludes that tandem operation mode 1 is the optimal mode for winter operation in terms of energy efficiency.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
L. Bartolucci, S. Cordiner, A. Di Carlo, A. Gallifuoco, P. Mele, V. Mulone
Summary: Spent coffee grounds are a valuable biogenic waste that can be used as a source of biofuels and valuable chemicals through pyrolysis and solvent extraction processes. The study found that heavy organic bio-oil derived from coffee grounds can be used as a carbon-rich biofuel, while solvent extraction can extract xantines and p-benzoquinone, which are important chemicals for various industries. The results highlight the promising potential of solvent extraction in improving the economic viability of coffee grounds pyrolysis-based biorefineries.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Luiza de Queiroz Correa, Diego Bagnis, Pedro Rabelo Melo Franco, Esly Ferreira da Costa Junior, Andrea Oliveira Souza da Costa
Summary: Building-integrated photovoltaics, especially organic solar technology, are important for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the building sector. This study analyzed the performance of organic panels laminated in glass in a vertical installation in Latin America. Results showed that glass lamination and vertical orientation preserved the panels' performance and led to higher energy generation in winter.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Zhipei Hu, Shuo Jiang, Zhigao Sun, Jun Li
Summary: This study proposes innovative fin arrangements to enhance the thermal performance of latent heat storage units. Through optimization of fin distribution and prediction of transient melting behaviors, it is found that fin structures significantly influence heat transfer characteristics and melting behaviors.