Extraction of Information about Individual Trees from High-Spatial-Resolution UAV-Acquired Images of an Orchard

The extraction of information about individual trees is essential to supporting the growing of fruit in orchard management. Data acquired from spectral sensors mounted on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have very high spatial and temporal resolution. However, an efficient and reliable method for extracting information about individual trees with irregular tree-crown shapes and a complicated background is lacking. In this study, we developed and tested the performance of an approach, based on UAV imagery, to extracting information about individual trees in an orchard with a complicated background that includes apple trees (Plot 1) and pear trees (Plot 2). The workflow involves the construction of a digital orthophoto map (DOM), digital surface models (DSMs), and digital terrain models (DTMs) using the Structure from Motion (SfM) and Multi-View Stereo (MVS) approaches, as well as the calculation of the Excess Green minus Excess Red Index (ExGR) and the selection of various thresholds. Furthermore, a local-maxima filter method and marker-controlled watershed segmentation were used for the detection and delineation, respectively, of individual trees. The accuracy of the proposed method was evaluated by comparing its results with manual estimates of the numbers of trees and the areas and diameters of tree-crowns, all three of which parameters were obtained from the DOM. The results of the proposed method are in good agreement with these manual estimates: The F-scores for the estimated numbers of individual trees were 99.0% and 99.3% in Plot 1 and Plot 2, respectively, while the Producer's Accuracy (PA) and User's Accuracy (UA) for the delineation of individual tree-crowns were above 95% for both of the plots. For the area of individual tree-crowns, root-mean-square error (RMSE) values of 0.72 m(2) and 0.48 m(2) were obtained for Plot 1 and Plot 2, respectively, while for the diameter of individual tree-crowns, RMSE values of 0.39 m and 0.26 m were obtained for Plot 1 (339 trees correctly identified) and Plot 2 (203 trees correctly identified), respectively. Both the areas and diameters of individual tree-crowns were overestimated to varying degrees.