Historical evolution of lead-acid battery system and its relationship with external environment based on the composite flow

The quantitative demand for composite flow of lead-acid battery (LAB) system varies with the requirement from human and affects the external environment. A framework with four stages [production of primary lead (PPL), fabrication and manufacturing (F&M), use and waste management and recycling (WMR)] and the external dynamic evaluating system was developed. The historical evolution characteristics of the system in the Chinese mainland from 1990 to 2016 was investigated. For material aspect, the consumption of secondary lead increased faster. All lead ore was consumed in PPL and reduced by the average rate 1.2%. The total lead emissions declined before they increased, that in F&M reduced the most with the average rate 29%; the share of scrap lead in waste LAB was vital, 63%-75%. For energy aspect, the energy consumption in WMR grew faster. And the external performance of energy flow grew, that in PPL reduced the fastest with the average rate 31%, and the share of that in use was approximately 80%. For value aspect, the value of lead in LABs increased faster. The influence from the value flow grew negatively. The index of WMR increased the positively and fastest by average rate 85%, and its proportion of use was largest, about 313%. The evolution of the key internal factors was analyzed, which have a great influence on the system. The overall change of large recycling rate, intermediate recycling rate and lead emissions rate of WMR grew. The lead emissions rates of F&M and PPL increased before decreasing. The reasons influencing the variation, such as policies and technologies, were analyzed. (C) 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.