The impact of transcendental meditation on depressive symptoms and blood pressure in adults with cardiovascular disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: Transcendental Meditation (TM) as a stress management technique may offer an adjunctive strategy to improve health and well-being in adults with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Objectives: To examine the efficacy of TM to improve aspects of cardiovascular health and psychological functioning in adults with CVD. Method: Studies (a) evaluating TM in adults with hypertension or CVD and (b) assessing a physiological or psychological outcome were retrieved and meta-analyzed. Weighted mean effect sizes were computed to assess between-and within-group changes. Results: Nine studies met inclusion criteria (N = 851; mean age = 60 +/- 8 years; 47% women). Between-group analyses revealed no differences between TM and control groups. However, within-group (i.e., pre-to post intervention) analyses revealed reductions in systolic (d+ = 0.31) and diastolic (d+ = 0.53) blood pressure (BP) for the TM group. There were no changes in depressive symptoms for TM or control participants. Conclusions: TM was associated with within-group (but not between-groups) improvements in BP. Continued research using randomized controlled trials with larger samples, and measuring psychophysiological outcomes at longer follow-up intervals is recommended.