Article
Energy & Fuels
Nidhal Ben Khedher, Jasim M. Mahdi, Anmar Dulaimi, Ilia Shojaeinasab Chatroudi, Mohammadreza Ebrahimnataj Tiji, Raed Khalid Ibrahem, A. Yvaz, Pouyan Talebizadehsardari
Summary: Phase-change materials (PCMs) have the potential to address the mismatch between energy supply and demand due to their energy savings, uniform operating temperature, and low cost. This study demonstrates the advantage of using arc-shaped fins as thermal enhancers to improve the thermal functionality of PCM in a storage system. Parametric studies show that modifying the dimensions and angles of the fin configuration can further enhance the heat storage rate.
JOURNAL OF ENERGY STORAGE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Giulia Righetti, Claudio Zilio, Giovanni A. Longo, Kamel Hooman, Simone Mancin
Summary: Experimental study showed that the addition of foam can significantly reduce the charging and discharging times of phase change materials. The foam sample with 20 pores per inch demonstrated the best performance and fastest phase transfers. Furthermore, the charging and discharging times were influenced by water flow rate and temperature, but not affected by the inclination angle.
APPLIED THERMAL ENGINEERING
(2022)
Article
Thermodynamics
Junaid Khan, Inderjot Kaur, Youssef Aider, Heejin Cho, Seungdeog Choi, Prashant Singh
Summary: Phase change materials (PCMs) are effective for thermal management of avionics, but suffer from low thermal conductivity. Placing fins strategically in a PCM-filled volume can improve thermal performance by enhancing thermal conductivity and heat transfer surface area. Different gravity conditions during flight can affect the overall performance of PCMs, thus it is necessary to investigate their characteristics under various gravity conditions. This research conducts numerical simulations to study the melting characteristics of PCM-fin configuration under microgravity, terrestrial gravity, and hypergravity conditions, and reports the temperature field, melt fraction, and melting time. The benefits of adding fins are highlighted by comparing the PCM-fin system with the PCM-only configuration under each investigated gravity condition.
NUMERICAL HEAT TRANSFER PART A-APPLICATIONS
(2023)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Vahid Safari, Hossein Abolghasemi, Leila Darvishvand, Babak Kamkari
Summary: This study evaluates the combined effect of fin configuration and eccentricity of heat transfer tube on the melting behavior of phase change material (PCM) inside shell and tube heat exchangers. Experimental findings show that the eccentric tube HX and bifurcated fin configuration can significantly reduce melting time, while numerical simulations indicate that bifurcations increase total heat transfer rate.
JOURNAL OF ENERGY STORAGE
(2021)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Aurang Zaib, Abdur Rehman Mazhar, Shahid Aziz, Tariq Talha, Dong-Won Jung
Summary: This paper investigates the heat transfer enhancement techniques for phase change materials (PCM) in duplex and triplex tube heat exchangers. Numerical analysis is conducted to evaluate the effect of external fins and internal-external fins on the melting and solidification process. The results show that the novel configurations significantly reduce the total time of phase change without disrupting the convectional currents.
Article
Thermodynamics
Pallavi Kumari, Debasree Ghosh
Summary: The use of latent heat energy storage can minimize fuel consumption and reduce environmental pollution. This study aims to provide more information on designing latent heat energy storage systems for industrial and domestic applications. The study compares the storage or melting efficiency of phase-change materials in concentric and hairpin heat exchangers, and investigates the effect of PCM type on the melting process. Numerical results show that decreasing the diameter and increasing the length of the high-temperature fluid can enhance heat transfer and improve energy storage.
JOURNAL OF THERMAL ANALYSIS AND CALORIMETRY
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Omer S. Elsanusi, Emmanuel C. Nsofor
Summary: This study investigated the performance of multiple PCMs for different arrangements in a horizontally positioned heat exchanger during melting, revealing the positive effect of natural convection heat transfer on these systems and the superior energy storage performance of the series arrangement compared to others.
APPLIED THERMAL ENGINEERING
(2021)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Mohamed Boujelbene, Hayder I. Mohammed, Hasan Sh. Majdi, Roohollah Babaei-Mahani, Pouyan Talebizadehsardari, Alireza Rahbari
Summary: This study evaluates the melting behavior of nano-enhanced phase change materials (NePCM) in a triple-tube heat exchanger with a zigzag-shape channel configuration. By numerically simulating a zigzag tube with different angles and heights and comparing the results with a conventional triple-tube heat exchanger, the performance of the proposed geometry is assessed. Cu, CuO, Al2O3, and Ag nanoparticles are used to improve the thermal conductivity of NePCMs. The main finding is that using a middle zigzag tube significantly improves the melting performance of a triple-tube heat exchanger.
JOURNAL OF ENERGY STORAGE
(2023)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Liping Song, Suchen Wu, Cheng Yu, Wei Gao
Summary: This study proposes an innovative multi-tube latent heat storage unit with tree-shaped fins to enhance the thermal properties of phase change materials. Results show that tree-shaped fins improve thermal transport, shorten melting time, and enhance temperature uniformity.
JOURNAL OF ENERGY STORAGE
(2022)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Zhen Qin, Chenzhen Ji, Zheng Hua Low, Wei Tong, Chenlong Wu, Fei Duan
Summary: Waste heat recovery from industrial exhaust gases is crucial for reducing fuel consumption and improving energy efficiency. This study focuses on the effect of PCM container geometry on melting behavior and heat storage performance. The results show that a protruding-shaped container with high convection strength significantly improves PCM melting and thermal storage rates.
Article
Thermodynamics
Siyu Zheng, Songrui Li, Rui Dai, Mingshan Wei, Ran Tian, Panpan Song
Summary: In this study, a rectangular finned-tube latent heat storage device was designed and fabricated using a composite phase change material. The process of heat storage and release was mainly governed by thermal conduction, and the inlet temperature had a more significant impact on accelerating the heat storage/release processes compared to the mass flow rate. In practical applications, increasing the inlet temperature difference proved to be more effective in enhancing heat storage performance than adjusting the mass flow rate.
CASE STUDIES IN THERMAL ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Chemistry, Multidisciplinary
Min Li, Jasim M. Mahdi, Hayder I. Mohammed, Dmitry Olegovich Bokov, Mustafa Z. Mahmoud, Ali Naghizadeh, Pouyan Talebizadehsardari, Wahiba Yaici
Summary: Thermal energy storage is crucial in bridging the gap between energy supply and demand. The position of heat exchanger tubes and the distribution of HTF in the unit impact the energy discharging potential and buoyancy effect during solidification. Moving HTF tubes to medium positions vertically can enhance PCM solidification, while repositioning tubes on the left side may improve heat removal rate but also negatively affect solidification. Decreasing HTF temperature can significantly increase heat removal rate.
Article
Thermodynamics
Bingkun Huang, Shimi Yang, Enyi Hu, Xiuxiu Li, Jun Wang, Peter Lund
Summary: This paper establishes a mathematical model to explain the melting process of PCM affected by natural convection, introducing a coordination factor Co to explain the melting process. The study finds that Co is closely related to the melting rate, promoting the melting rate when Co is greater than 0. The research provides theoretical guidance for enhancing phase change heat storage.
CASE STUDIES IN THERMAL ENGINEERING
(2021)
Article
Materials Science, Ceramics
Zhiyuan Wang, Ke Lei, Shuo Wang, Fu Wang, Yuanqiang Zhang, Deqiu Zou
Summary: High-performance heat storage materials and devices are in urgent demand to achieve efficient heat storage. In this study, a novel SnBi58 alloy microencapsulated phase change material (MEPCM)/ceramic composite with flow channels inside was fabricated for medium-temperature heat storage, combining the characteristics of sensible heat storage (SHS) and latent heat storage (LHS). A tubeless heat exchanger based on the composite was constructed and experimentally studied for its heat storage performance. The results show that the composite-based heat exchanger has doubled thermal conductivity (up to 3.09 W/(m.K)) and increased heat storage density by 30.4% to 559.1 MJ/m(3) compared to a ceramic-based heat exchanger.
CERAMICS INTERNATIONAL
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Thanh Phuong Nguyen, Zaher Ramadan, Sung Joo Hong, Chan Woo Park
Summary: This study numerically simulated and analyzed the thermal performance of rectangular graphite-finned latent heat storage, considering the effects of fin material, fin thickness, inlet heat transfer fluid temperature, and water flow rate. The results showed that the inlet water temperature had a significant effect on the thermal response, and graphite fins could be an alternative to conventional copper fins. Increasing the fin thickness could enhance the heat transfer rate and reduce the melting time.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
(2022)
Article
Engineering, Mechanical
Gang Zhao, Xiaolin Wang, Michael Negnevitsky, Hengyun Zhang
Summary: This paper proposed an air-cooling battery thermal management system with multiple inlets/outlets design and evaluated the effects of inlet/outlet positions and dimensions on system performance. The results showed that the symmetrical double inlets/outlets design delivered the best temperature uniformity and energy consumption performance.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS PART E-JOURNAL OF PROCESS MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Anci Wang, Feng Cao, Fan Jia, Yuxuan Liu, Xiang Yin, Yulong Song, Xiaolin Wang
Summary: Passenger comfort is prioritized over heating performance in electric vehicle heat pumps. Frost formation reduces heat exchange performance and heating capacity. A study revealed the dynamic characteristics of an electric vehicle CO2 heat pump under constant heating capacity operation, which differed significantly from those under constant compressor speed operation. A new defrosting initiation criterion based on the dynamic characteristics was proposed and its reliability was verified. The heat pump with the new criterion outperformed the traditional PTC auxiliary heating method under various environmental conditions.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REFRIGERATION
(2023)
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Soroush Samareh Abolhassani, Mahmood Mastani Joybari, Mirata Hosseini, Mojtaba Parsaee, Ursula Eicker
Summary: Global warming has significantly impacted communities, health, and infrastructure. Previous studies have shown that climate change leads to warmer temperatures, affecting the heating and cooling needs as well as thermal performance of buildings. Analyzing how buildings respond to climate change in terms of energy consumption is crucial for future energy planning and decision-making. However, the existing literature lacks a coherent approach, making it difficult to draw universal conclusions. This study introduces a step-by-step procedure to harmonize future research and guide building impact assessment under climate change.
JOURNAL OF BUILDING ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Mahmood Mastani Joybari, Hakon Selvnes, Erling Vingelsgard, Alexis Sevault, Armin Hafner
Summary: This study conducted a parametric study on the design and operational parameters of an industrial-scale pillow plate heat exchanger with carbon dioxide. The results showed that the difference between refrigerant and carbon dioxide phase change temperatures and plate material had the highest significance on storage size and cost, while the refrigerant flow rate had the lowest significance.
APPLIED THERMAL ENGINEERING
(2023)
Review
Thermodynamics
Gang Zhao, Xiaolin Wang, Michael Negnevitsky, Chengjiang Li
Summary: This paper reviews the effectiveness and efficiency of the liquid-cooling battery thermal management system (BTMS) for electric vehicles. It highlights the recent research on design improvements and optimization for the liquid-cooling BTMSs, emphasizing the most effective approaches to better cooling performance. The paper also discusses the current gaps and future directions in the research of liquid-cooling BTMS designs for the EV industry.
APPLIED THERMAL ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Chengjiang Li, Tingwen Jia, Honglei Wang, Xiaolin Wang, Michael Negnevitsky, Yu-jie Hu, Gang Zhao, Liang Wang
Summary: China has been accelerating the development of methanol vehicles since the early 2010s to ensure energy supply and reduce environmental pollution. This study compared green methanol vehicles with other vehicles in terms of energy, environment, and economy. The evaluation results show that biomethanol vehicles rank first, while the potential of CO2-to-methanol vehicles is limited. Based on the findings, the government should scale up the deployment of biomethanol vehicles and consider developing CO2-to-methanol vehicles after achieving carbon neutrality.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Anci Wang, Xiang Yin, Fan Jia, Feng Cao, Yuxuan Liu, Xiaolin Wang
Summary: This study focuses on improving the driving range of electric vehicles (EVs) by using CO2 heat pumps instead of PTC heaters. The research found that frost might lead to a rapid decrease in driving range. To address this issue, a new global performance improvement control method was proposed, which could enhance the driving range by up to 10%. It is recommended to implement this method in regions with low temperatures and high humidity.
JOURNAL OF CLEANER PRODUCTION
(2023)
Article
Energy & Fuels
Nishant Modi, Xiaolin Wang, Michael Negnevitsky
Summary: Domestic water heating accounts for a considerable portion of energy consumption in Australian buildings. The use of latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES) system in solar water heating has been widely investigated as a way to reduce fossil fuel consumption and increase renewable energy usage. However, recent research has focused mainly on optimizing the LHTES heat exchanger geometry, which may not be sufficient for commercialization. This perspective paper discusses various solar hot water systems using LHTES, emphasizing on-demand performance studies and structure optimization for faster commercialization, while also addressing future challenges.
Review
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Chengjiang Li, Tingwen Jia, Shiyuan Wang, Xiaolin Wang, Michael Negnevitsky, Honglei Wang, Yujie Hu, Weibin Xu, Na Zhou, Gang Zhao
Summary: Mature methanol vehicle technology has the potential to mitigate oil dependency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Pilot projects in China have shown positive economic and environmental effects. This study reviewed previous developments and policies to determine the feasibility of deploying methanol vehicles. Dynamic policy recommendations were made, including prioritizing coal-to-methanol and bio-methanol vehicles for economic benefits and advancing CO2-to-methanol technology for carbon neutrality.
Article
Engineering, Chemical
Lanbo Lai, Xiaolin Wang, Gholamreza Kefayati, Eric Hu
Summary: In this paper, the performance of a hybrid system combining a solid desiccant-based M-cycle cooling system with a humidification-dehumidification desalination unit was analyzed and compared in three modes. The recirculation mode showed better cooling performance, producing up to 7.91 kW of cooling load and maintaining a low air temperature and humidity under various conditions. All three modes had similar water production rates, but the recirculation mode had a higher coefficient of performance. However, this mode also had higher water consumption.
Article
Construction & Building Technology
Ehsanolah Assareh, Ali Dejdar, Ali Ershadi, Masoud Jafarian, Mohammadhossein Mansouri, Amir Salek Roshani, Ehsan Azish, Ehsan Saedpanah, Mona Aghajari, Xiaolin Wang
Summary: In this study, the energy and economic performance of a solar-assisted-geothermal combined cooling, heating, and power system (SG-CCHP) were evaluated using the response surface method (RSM) and transient assessment. The system included steam turbines, PV/T collectors, a fuel cell circuit, an absorption chiller, a heat pump, battery cells, and a hydrogen storage container. The optimal arrangement of the system was determined using the design of experiments (DOE) approach, and the outcomes were analyzed using RSM. The results showed significant improvements in life cycle costs, thermal comfort score, total power usage, and auxiliary boiler natural gas usage after optimization.
JOURNAL OF BUILDING ENGINEERING
(2023)
Article
Electrochemistry
Gang Zhao, Xiaolin Wang, Michael Negnevitsky, Chengjiang Li, Hengyun Zhang, Yingyao Cheng
Summary: In order to enhance the performance of air-cooling battery thermal management systems in electric vehicles, a novel vortex adjustment structure was designed. T-shape vortex generating columns were added between the battery cells to effectively change the aerodynamic patterns and thermodynamic properties of the battery pack. Different designs were evaluated and optimized under different working conditions. The results showed improved cooling performance with little increase in energy consumption and almost no additional cost, providing a guideline for the design and optimization of high-performance air-cooling battery thermal management systems in electric vehicles.
Article
Energy & Fuels
A. G. M. B. Mustayen, M. G. Rasul, X. Wang, M. A. Hazrat, M. J. Islam, M. Negnevitsky
Summary: The increasing use of plastic has led to a challenge in disposing of waste plastic and minimizing its negative environmental impact. This study evaluated the performance and emissions of a diesel engine using plastic-made diesel (PMD) produced from pyrolytic crude oil. The results showed that PMD has a higher engine performance and lower emissions compared to ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD).
JOURNAL OF THE ENERGY INSTITUTE
(2023)
Article
Thermodynamics
Junjie Shen, Xing Chen, Xiaobin Xu, Jizhou Kong, Zebing Song, Xiaolin Wang, Fei Zhou
Summary: This paper presents a novel hybrid cooling plate integrated with liquid microchannels and phase change material (PCM) for battery thermal management system (BTMS) in electric vehicles. The optimized design parameters resulted in reduced energy consumption and increased energy density while achieving a balance between cooling performance and energy consumption. The hybrid cooling plate improves temperature uniformity of the battery and slows heat loss in cold environments.
APPLIED THERMAL ENGINEERING
(2024)
Article
Thermodynamics
Kayla Kev, Nishant Modi, Dia Milani, Minh Tri Luu, Scott Nelson, Norhuda Abdul Manaf, Xiaolin Wang, Michael Negnevitsky, Ali Abbas
Summary: This study compares the life cycle assessment of conventional post-combustion carbon capture (PCC), solar-assisted PCC, and a novel concept of solar-powered PCC. The results show that the solar-powered PCC has the lowest global warming potential and highest CO2 abatement, making it advantageous for retrofitting into existing coal-fired power plants or industrial plants to mitigate global warming.
ENERGY CONVERSION AND MANAGEMENT
(2023)
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Cameron Bracken, Nathalie Voisin, Casey D. Burleyson, Allison M. Campbell, Z. Jason Hou, Daniel Broman
Summary: This study presents a methodology and dataset for examining compound wind and solar energy droughts, as well as the first standardized benchmark of energy droughts across the Continental United States (CONUS) for a 2020 infrastructure. The results show that compound wind and solar droughts have distinct spatial and temporal patterns across the CONUS, and the characteristics of energy droughts are regional. The study also finds that compound high load events occur more often during compound wind and solar droughts than expected.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Ning Zhang, Yanghao Yu, Jiawei Wu, Ershun Du, Shuming Zhang, Jinyu Xiao
Summary: This paper provides insights into the optimal configuration of CSP plants with different penetrations of wind power by proposing an unconstrained optimization model. The results suggest that large solar multiples and TES are preferred in order to maximize profit, especially when combined with high penetrations of wind and photovoltaic plants. Additionally, the study demonstrates the economy and feasibility of installing electric heaters (EH) in CSP plants, which show a linear correlation with the penetration of variable energy resources.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
M. Szubel, K. Papis-Fraczek, S. Podlasek
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
J. Silva, J. C. Goncalves, C. Rocha, J. Vilaca, L. M. Madeira
Summary: This study investigated the methanation of CO2 in biogas and compared two different methanation reactors. The results showed that the cooled reactor without CO2 separation achieved a CO2 conversion rate of 91.8%, while the adiabatic reactors achieved conversion rates of 59.6% and 67.2%, resulting in an overall conversion rate of 93.0%. Economic analysis revealed negative net present worth values, indicating the need for government monetary incentives.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Yang Liu, Yonglan Xi, Xiaomei Ye, Yingpeng Zhang, Chengcheng Wang, Zhaoyan Jia, Chunhui Cao, Ting Han, Jing Du, Xiangping Kong, Zhongbing Chen
Summary: This study investigated the effect of using nanofiber membrane composites containing Prussian blue-like compound nanoparticles (PNPs) to relieve ammonia nitrogen inhibition of rural organic household waste during high-solid anaerobic digestion and increase methane production. The results showed that adding NMCs with 15% PNPs can lower the concentrations of volatile fatty acids and ammonia nitrogen, and increase methane yield.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Zhong Ge, Xiaodong Wang, Jian Li, Jian Xu, Jianbin Xie, Zhiyong Xie, Ruiqu Ma
Summary: This study evaluates the thermodynamic, exergy, and economic performance of a double-stage organic flash cycle (DOFC) using ten eco-friendly hydrofluoroolefins. The influences of key parameters on performance are analyzed, and the advantages of DOFC over single-stage type are quantified.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Nicolas Kirchner-Bossi, Fernando Porte-Agel
Summary: This study investigates the optimization of power density in wind farms and its sensitivity to the available area size. A novel genetic algorithm (PDGA) is introduced to optimize power density and turbine layout. The results show that the PDGA-driven solutions significantly reduce the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) compared to the default layout, and exhibit a convex relationship between area and LCOE or power density.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Chunxiao Zhang, Dongdong Li, Lin Wang, Qingpo Yang, Yutao Guo, Wei Zhang, Chao Shen, Jihong Pu
Summary: In this study, a novel reversible liquid-filled energy-saving window that effectively regulates indoor solar radiation heat gain is proposed. Experimental results show that this window can effectively reduce indoor temperature during both summer and winter seasons, while having minimal impact on indoor illuminance.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Alessandro L. Aguiar, Martinho Marta-Almeida, Mauro Cirano, Janini Pereira, Leticia Cotrim da Cunha
Summary: This study analyzed the Brazilian Equatorial Shelf using a high-resolution ocean model and found significant tidal variations in the area. Several hypothetical barrages were proposed with higher annual power generation than existing barrages. The study also evaluated the installation effort of these barrages.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Francesco Superchi, Nathan Giovannini, Antonis Moustakis, George Pechlivanoglou, Alessandro Bianchini
Summary: This study focuses on the optimization of a hybrid power station on the Tilos island in Greece, aiming to increase energy export and revenue by optimizing energy fluxes. Different scenarios are proposed to examine the impact of different agreements with the grid operator on the optimal solution.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Peimaneh Shirazi, Amirmohammad Behzadi, Pouria Ahmadi, Sasan Sadrizadeh
Summary: This research presents two novel energy production/storage/usage systems to reduce energy consumption and environmental effects in buildings. A biomass-fired model and a solar-driven system integrated with photovoltaic thermal (PVT) panels and a heat pump were designed and assessed. The results indicate that the solar-based system has an acceptable energy cost and the PVT-based system with a heat pump is environmentally superior. The biomass-fired system shows excellent efficiency.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Zihao Qi, Yingling Cai, Yunxiang Cui
Summary: This study aims to investigate the operational characteristics of the solar-ground source heat pump system (SGSHPS) in Shanghai under different operation modes. It concludes that tandem operation mode 1 is the optimal mode for winter operation in terms of energy efficiency.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
L. Bartolucci, S. Cordiner, A. Di Carlo, A. Gallifuoco, P. Mele, V. Mulone
Summary: Spent coffee grounds are a valuable biogenic waste that can be used as a source of biofuels and valuable chemicals through pyrolysis and solvent extraction processes. The study found that heavy organic bio-oil derived from coffee grounds can be used as a carbon-rich biofuel, while solvent extraction can extract xantines and p-benzoquinone, which are important chemicals for various industries. The results highlight the promising potential of solvent extraction in improving the economic viability of coffee grounds pyrolysis-based biorefineries.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Luiza de Queiroz Correa, Diego Bagnis, Pedro Rabelo Melo Franco, Esly Ferreira da Costa Junior, Andrea Oliveira Souza da Costa
Summary: Building-integrated photovoltaics, especially organic solar technology, are important for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the building sector. This study analyzed the performance of organic panels laminated in glass in a vertical installation in Latin America. Results showed that glass lamination and vertical orientation preserved the panels' performance and led to higher energy generation in winter.
Article
Green & Sustainable Science & Technology
Zhipei Hu, Shuo Jiang, Zhigao Sun, Jun Li
Summary: This study proposes innovative fin arrangements to enhance the thermal performance of latent heat storage units. Through optimization of fin distribution and prediction of transient melting behaviors, it is found that fin structures significantly influence heat transfer characteristics and melting behaviors.
