Analytical problems and the need for sample preparation in the determination of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in aqueous environmental matrices

The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment is of increasing research interest, as modern sensitive techniques are used worldwide for their determination. Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are among the most important classes of chemicals currently being investigated in environmental matrices at trace levels with techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). We discuss analytical developments in the past 10 years, with particular emphasis on sample-preparation procedures and related analytical problems and needs. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.